Geography

measures concerning population

2012-01-02T14:26:00.002+08:00

Fish Farming development in Singapore

2011-12-11T18:36:00.003+08:00

A local polytechnic has developed a farming system that can potentially benefit fish farmers. The common problems cited by fish farmers include a lack of technical know-how, high fish mortality rates and no control over water quality. Over the past year, researchers and students from the Singapore Polytechnic have developed a commercial system that allows high-density fish farming by having 36,000 fish in 120 bulk containers. This allows for further productivity in a limited land space. The individual bulk containers also have an auto-feeding system. The system also makes use of existing technologies for water treatment to take place naturally. Channel News Asia 11 Dec 2011

Chek Jawa

2011-11-26T14:50:00.001+08:00

http://chekjawaadventure.blogspot.com/

Flash flood hits Western part of Singapore

2011-11-13T05:25:00.001+08:00

Kranji Heritage trail

2011-11-10T20:44:00.002+08:00

Tourists rank their Singapore favourites

2011-10-26T19:38:00.003+08:00

New Circle line

Turkey Earthquake

2011-10-24T21:30:00.004+08:00

Rescuers scrambled through the rubble in a desperate search for survivors of an earthquake that killed at least 264 people in Turkey as residents fled the scenes of devastation. A total of 264 people were confirmed to have been killed by the 7.2-magnitude earthquake which struck around lunchtime on Sunday,23 Oct 2011.

Asia flood affecting rice supply in the region

2011-10-14T22:30:00.007+08:00

How has the flood in parts of Asia affected the supply of food in the region?

Price of rice will increase in Singapore next week due to the fall in supply as many of the rice fields in Asia are destroyed in the flood.

Many farmers' livelihood would definitely be affected. There will be food shortages in parts of Asia and many more adverse economic impacts.

Will there be increased poverty affecting food affordability?

283 had already lost their lives in Thailand due to the heavy monsoon rain, flood and mudslides.
The provinces of Ayutthaya has been badly hit and at least 3 big industrial estates there have closed temporary. A Nikon digital SLR factory and a Honda Motor assembly plant have closed.

Many countries have issued travel alerts to Thailand and definitely tourism is affected. Income will fall and many might lose their jobs.

Cliff collapse at Cornwall's North Cliff, UK

2011-10-13T09:00:00.002+08:00

The footage, filmed on Cornwall’s North Cliffs near Hell's Mouth, shows thousands of tonnes of rock from a cliff-edge 150-200ft high suddenly crashing into the sea.

MEWR to raise minimum level for land reclamation

2011-10-13T07:07:00.000+08:00

Flooding in Vietnam - broken dykes

2011-10-11T12:26:00.004+08:00

Increasing jobs and income in the Philippines

2011-10-11T09:05:00.010+08:00

One of the national development strategies - to create jobs and increase income of the people in Philippies
Microfinance (small loans) given to small and medium businesses
Micro small and medium enterprise development plan - provide SME access to finance, enable them to penetrate market and make them globally competitive.
Through the plan the government hopes to generate 2 million new jobs by 2016 and increase the sector's economic contribution to 40% of GDP.

Using social entreprise to help Philippines poorest

Bangkok flood crisis

2011-10-10T19:20:00.012+08:00

Bangkok faces flood crisis

14 Oct 2011 CNA Video

Bangkok fights flood 15 Oct CNA video

see how Bangkok uses sandbags as barrier against flood 18 Oct 2011

Impossible to protect all of Bangkok from flood 20 Oct 2011

Bangkok flood will last weeks 26 Oct 2011

Bangkok flood inch closer to city centre 28 Oct 2011

Thailand aid hampered by rising flood 1 Nov 2011

Singapore Population 2011

2011-10-02T23:08:00.001+08:00

Wrath of Nature

2011-10-02T22:29:00.009+08:00

Fire at Pulau Bukom Refinery

2011-10-01T06:54:00.003+08:00

Thank God it was put out. More severe environmental and exconomic impacts would be damaging to a small country like Singapore.

Pointers on Tourism

2011-09-27T13:54:00.006+08:00

Tourism is defined as the temporary short-term movement of people to places outside the home environment and the activities they engage in; it may or may not involve overnight stay away from their homes.

Tourism is not only an important industry in the world; it is also the largest and one which is still expanding. The world population has increased and thus corresponding there is an increase in the number of people travelling. The growing affluence of people or certain groups of people and the desire to explore the rest of the world are important motivating factors for travel.

With increasing literacy, people learn more about place which in turn arouse their curiosity and desire to see the world. With increasing urbanisation, more people travel to escape from the stress of city life. Technological development in terms of better transport and communication facilities also facilitates travelling. Information technology has also heightened the people’s awareness and stimulated their interest in travelling.

Tourism brings in revenue and employment for countries. Thus, governments have been promoting tourism in their countries and have even set up tourism offices in other countries to attract foreigners to tour their countries. With the global shift in industries and that many MNCs have branches overseas, people are given additional reason and opportunities to travel to other countries.

Factors affect the nature of tourism
• Places of scenic beauty e.g. mountain regions, coastal resorts, national parks -honeypot tourism
• Places with good facilities – MICE (e.g. Singapore) educational tourism, medical tourism, health tourism,
• Places with rich culture - film-induced tourism (e.g. Korea), heritage tourism, pilgrimage tourism (e.g. Mecca),
• Places of conflicts - dark tourism (Killing Fields and Tuoi Sleng Genocide Museum in Cambodia, Auschwitz Camp in Poland),
• space tourism (e.g. USA)

Factors affecting tourism trends
Domestic tourism, international tourism, demand, disposable income, evolution of mass tourism (beach holidays) to niche tourism (e.g. whale watching, green tourism) and from tour groups to independent travelers

Impacts of regional fluctuation on tourism
Impact of disasters, regional and global recessions, political situation and diseases

Impacts of tourism
• Economic – advantages (e.g. employment opportunities, growth in income, increase in foreign exchange, development of infrastructure and facilities) and disadvantages (e.g. seasonal unemployment, under-use of facilities at certain times of the year, a shortage of services eg. Water supplies)
• Socio-cultural (e.g. preservation versus dilution of local customs and heritage, increased crime)
• Environmental (e.g. vandalism, littering, destruction of habitat, carbon footprint, increased congestion, pollution)

Managing the impacts of tourism
• Conservation of fragile environments and sustainable tourism (through laws and regulation and support from local population)
• Responsibilities of various groups (e.g visitors, tour operators, planning authorities, non-governmental organizations like the International Eco-tourism Society and conservation International) in conserving and protecting tourist areas

Tourism

View more presentations from Xinmin Secondary School Singapore

Tourism in Singapore

2011-09-27T13:38:00.004+08:00

Tourism is a major contributor to the economy of Singapore.Tourism receipts was estimated to reach S$18.8 billion in 2010, with Shopping and Sightseeing/Entertainment accounting for 21% of total expenditure each, Accommodation making up 19%, and Food and Beverage another 10%. Medical receipts, representing the medical-tourism industry the country was trying to promoted, contributed 5%.

A glimpse on where most of the tourists are from and the major tourist attractions in Singapore. There is a need for Singapore to look at new attractions to make sure that we stay competitive in the industry.

Some new attractions in Singapore - Safari River @ Singapore Zoological Garden, Universal Studio Theme park @ Sentosa, F1 Race

Hotspots in Kalimantan

2011-09-23T22:53:00.009+08:00

Source: NEA 23 Sept 2011

The number of hotspots in Sumatra and Kalimantan so far this year has hit 17,000 - more than double the total last year. The fires are usually started by large oil palm plantation companies and by farmers clearing land for their fields.

I think some of us would have experienced some health problems caused by the haze due to the fires recently. Regional efforts from ASEAN is definitely needed and in the latest ASEAN meet, ministers from the five nations agreed to make public the satellite so as to put pressure on companies involved in this 'environmental vandalism,'.

Officials said Indonesia is taking steps to reduce fires and haze, but they said much work remains to be done. The vastness of Indonesia's land makes it difficult to police. In addition, setting fire to peat lands to create palm oil plantations is a lucrative practice. Indonesia's Deputy of Degradation Control and Climate Change at the Environment Ministry said his country is stepping up law enforcement efforts and taking steps to fight fires.
http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/southeastasia/view/1155060/1/.html

Population pyramid

2011-09-23T01:30:00.001+08:00

http://www.freewebs.com/lily_lee68/population%20pyramid/index.html

Rice cultivation

2011-09-23T01:08:00.001+08:00

http://www.freewebs.com/lily_lee68/rice%20cultivation/index.html

Interactive map reading

2011-09-23T00:35:00.002+08:00

Revision on grid bearing - http://www.freewebs.com/lily_lee68/gridbearing/index.html
4 digit Grid reference - http://www.freewebs.com/lily_lee68/gridreference4digit/index.html

Singapore's population decline

2011-09-07T22:26:00.002+08:00

Singapore's resident population will decline and become extremely aged if the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) is extremely low and if there is no in-migration.
Channelnewsasia.com 7 Sept 2011

Extreme weather

2011-08-30T17:47:00.006+08:00

Extreme weather all over the world just within days last week. From the typhoon Nanmadol hitting Phillippines (28 Aug) and Taiwan (29 Aug), to the hurricane Irene in New York as well (29-30 Aug) as flooding in Mumbai, India (30 Aug).

Paper made from rocks (limestone)

2011-07-09T20:09:00.003+08:00

Pretty amazed by a documentary on TV - in an effort to protect the forest, an innovative way of making paper from rocks had been developed in China.

The new Rich Mineral Paper (RMP) is made from mainly mineral rocks containing variants of calcium carbonate, such as calcite, marble and limestone, which are easily found in China.

RMP is eco-friendly and does not involve pollution of water, toxic gases or waste products in its production process. Unlike wood pulp paper, RMP is made from stone. Grinding minerals into powder and dissolving the powder into non-poisonous organic macromolecular compounds, the production process does not need water, strong acids, strong bases, bleaching agents nor other organic chlorines. This means it does not produce waste. In production, it will also reduce per-unit energy consumption to two thirds of traditional techniques.

RMP is biodegradable and easily recycled. The paper degrade and cracks like eggshell when exposed to direct sunlight for six months or more and will turn into inorganic powder within a year of being buried.

RMP looks like conventional paper but it is more pliable and tougher, therefore more durable, and is waterproof. When used for writing, it will help resist water damage. When used in print work, it provides clearer imprints and pictures. It can be used to replace plastics for grocery bags, tablecloths and raincoats.

Information extracted from:
http://www.bjreview.com.cn/science/txt/2010-02/27/content_249035.htm

Water self-sufficiency in Singapore

2011-07-07T20:39:00.008+08:00

Water self-sufficiency, the Singapore way 4:29 mins

At the Water Conversation session at this year's Singapore International Water Week, Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong talk about how Singapore can be self-sufficient in her water supply. Recycled water (NEWater) and desalinated water will account for 80% of Singapore's water supply in 2061, with the remaining 20% coming from water catchment areas.

http://www.razor.tv/site/servlet/segment/main/news/66002.html

Two more new reservoirs in Singapore

2011-07-03T21:29:00.001+08:00

Remember what I told the class about the damming of Sungei Serangoon (the river near our school)? It is finally completed! However, the water from the Serangoon reservoir is still undergoing desalting process, and will only be fit for consumption by the end of this year.

Together with the damming of Sungei Punggol, two more reservoirs are created bringing a total of 17 reservoirs in Singapore now, increasing our total water catchment areas from half to two-thirds of Singapore.

This will help Singapore attained self-sufficiency in water supply - a topic which you will be studying in Sec 2.

http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/singaporelocalnews/view/1138608/1/.html

Uses of River

2011-06-25T20:16:00.003+08:00

Uses of river- as a tourist attraction and a mode of transport:

Floating market in Bangkok, Thailand

Ferry services along Chao Phraya River, Thailand

Impact of increase in food prices

2011-04-27T22:23:00.001+08:00

How would this impact on the LDCs? Will there be more hungry people? Food availability = Food affordability?

Use of technology to increase food production

2011-04-27T22:16:00.004+08:00

Use of technology to increase food production. To feed more hungry people or the urban affluent?

Coastal Management

2011-04-10T23:06:00.003+08:00

As we learn about coastal process and landforms, I hope that you understand the importance of this topic. Being a small island, we cannot afford to lose our land to coastal erosion - much have to be done to protect the coast. We want to live by the sea and not in the sea! Look at the video below on the different coastal management strategies. The advantages and disadvantages of each method are highlighted in the video.

You may also want to look at this video below - it has a better representation of what is a gabion compared to the video above.

Earthquakes

2011-04-10T22:49:00.003+08:00

As you can see below - earthquakes occur mainly at the plate boundaries - note the movement of the plates. The convergent plates (plates moving towards each other) resulting in earthquakes as well as the presence of volcano - e.g. Pacific Ring of Fire.

The latest toll as at 23 March 2011 from the Japan earthquake

The movement of the plates resulting in earthquakes in Indonesia (picture above) and Philippines (picture below).

Plates sliding past each other - San Andreas Fault.

Food prices increased

2011-04-10T22:34:00.003+08:00

THE floods in the south of Thailand have affected the supply of vegetables and fruit to Singapore, causing prices to rise about 20 per cent in wet markets and delaying delivery. Heavy rain hit southern Thailand in March 2011, which led to severe flooding and mudslides in Nakhon Si Thammarat and Krabi provinces.

Whenever there is a flood in a country that supplies Singapore, prices go up. To ensure a steady supply, importers in Singapore would look to other countries like Malaysia and China to make up for the shortfall.

The Agri-Food and Veterinary Authority (AVA) said Singapore imports vegetables from 39 countries, with the largest suppliers being Malaysia, China and India. The three account for 86 per cent of vegetables here.

You can see here how food production and supply is affected by climatic factor and the need to diversify our food source as mentioned in my previous post.

Geography of Food

2011-04-10T22:12:00.005+08:00

Attended a Geography seminar on Geography of Food and I must say I learned a lot from it- esp the AVA is doing to ensure food safety and security in Singapore from Mrs Tan-Low Lai Kim.

I was surprised to learn that the consumption of whole fish is actually declining in Singapore. It seems that the youngsters prefer fish in the form of nuggets or fillet as they don't like whole fish with fish bones.

She also highlighted interesting facts such how the chicken rice vendors came to them for help when live chicken imports from Malaysia was banned in 2003 due to the avian flu outbreak. Consumption decreased rapidly then as compared to the outbreak in 2006. The AVA had improved the situation by banning by zones in a country rather than the whole country e.g chicken was supplied from Johor when there was an outbreak in Perak.

Being a country dependent on imports, food security often pose a problem. Emerging economies with increasing affluence might export less as their people become more affluent.

There is also a challenge in declining global food supply with declinging agricultural productivity, competition for essential resoueces such as water, arable land, labour and investment as well as diversion of food crops for biofuel production.

Of course other food security challenges include climatic change, outbreaks, natural disasters, political uncertainties, restrictive trade etc.

Key strategies which Singapore deployed:
1. diversification of food sources
2. stockpiking of essential food stocks
3. enhancing local production through small local farming
$10 million food fund introduced in 2009 - R&D in farming techniques e.g. fish breeding, vertical farming, seed banking
4. Promotion of food substitudes e.g. frozen meat

It really makes us ponder about the food we are eating today. There is quite a good documentary on CNA tomorrow (10th April 2011) at 7pm - a preview of the show below:

No wonder one of the speakers, Dr George Jacobs, became a vegetarian. It seems that more people are becoming vegetarian not because of religion but rather due to health, environment and kindness (towards animals) concerns. It is a fact that much food has gone into feeding animals rather than hungry people - I suppose that's why there is a movement to be vegetarian once a week - www.facebook.com/veggiethursdaysg

Many also debated on the cruelty of factory farming - for my students I am sure you remember the clip I showed you from http://www.themeatrix.com/
There is also another clip from food inc showing a chicken farm:

The last speaker, Dr Pow Choon Piew, talk about the Hungry cities.
click here to see the no. of hungry people in the world
http://www.worldbank.org/foodcrisis/
imagine a billion people still hungry in the world

Video on Deforestation in Kalimantan

2011-03-04T10:08:00.005+08:00

Importance of the Mangroves in Borneo

Illegal Logging in Kalimantan

Saving our forest- The lungs of our planet

Sec 3 Mid-Year Project 2011

2011-02-28T08:33:00.000+08:00

A very good video clip on how to use window movie maker from Youtube. Pay attention to how you can insert the pictures, music and the titles. You can enhance your video clip with transition effect. Just remember to publish your video by saving it as a movie file as shown in the last part of the video.

A Geography Project Task was given out to the students this year - to submit a 5 min video clip based on the river journey from the source to the mouth. The students also need to submit a short writeup with the synopsis (the content of your video) as well as credits given to your group members and the list of reference for the video.

One example of a video clip can be found @ this link -http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AjZLAw_lgZ4 which is a similar project done by a group of students.

For sounds of river or waterfall - you might want to download from http://www.jetcityorange.com/SoundFiles/nature-sounds.html Just right click on the icon next to the track and select 'save target as'. Some of you might want to mix the sound with another piece of music which you have - the trick is after you have publish and save the video clip, import it and then add in the new audio track - you can right click on the audio timeline to adjust the volume.

Another tip - some of you might want to insert the explanation on the pictures using powerpont. You can then save as window metafiles (instead of powerpoint presentation) which are actually picture files created in a folder. You can then import these pictures into the movie maker.

As the file size is big - students were advised to make use of http://www.sendspace.com/ - just browse and upload the file and enter the email address of the recipient e.g. lily_lee68@yahoo.com.sg. I can then retrieve the file from sendspace with the link sent. A reminder - DO NOT sent the project file (mmv) send only the movie file (wmv). The project file should be kept by you in case you need to make amendments. If you send us the project file we would not be able to see the video as the pictures and music are actually stored in your computer. We will only be assessing the end product which is movie file (wmv) which you have created.

Global warming video

2011-02-04T18:46:00.000+08:00

Map Reading for Sec 1

2011-01-18T06:52:00.010+08:00

Notes on map reading:
http://comhumgeog.blogspot.com/search/label/Map%20Reading

Find out how to get to Bedok Reservoir using http://gothere.sg/maps

Take this world quiz on continents and oceans: http://www.lizardpoint.com/fun/geoquiz/worldquiz.html

Try out this simple excercise/game on topographical map:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/education/sysm/landscapes/highlands_islands/mapskills/index_intro.shtml#focus
Play this game to learn more about map symbols and legend:
http://www.mywonderfulworld.org/toolsforadventure/games/adventure.html

Find out more about topographical maps: http://www.classzone.com/books/earth_science/terc/content/investigations/es0307/es0307page01.cfm

Ozone layer depletion has stopped

2010-09-24T15:12:00.005+08:00

Great news - the UN scientists announced that the ozone layer depletion has stopped.

Ozone provides a natural protective filter against harmful ultra-violet rays from the sun, which can cause sunburn, cataracts and skin cancer as well as damage vegetation.

This is partly credited to the efforts by many countries in the signing of the Montreal treaty in 1987 to reduce the use of CFCs, substances used in refrigerators, aerosol sprays and some packing foams which has caused the destruction of the ozone layer.

However, the ozone-friendly substances that have replaced CFCs in plastics or as refrigerants, which are hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), are also powerful greenhouse gases. HFCs alone are regarded as 14,000 times more powerful than carbon dioxide (CO2) and HFC emissions are growing by eight percent a year, according to UN agencies. This will pose a challenge in dealing with the global climate change problem.

Adapted from http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5go2RnKHmYcJjFtzH-vKYV2gs_yJA

Underground water found in Singapore

2010-09-15T22:25:00.002+08:00

Read this cartoon on underground water found in Changi, Singapore.
http://chewonitcomics.blogspot.com/2010/01/underground-water-found.html
Does this mean additional source of water for Singapore?

Global Hunger decline

2010-09-14T20:58:00.003+08:00

Read this from http://www.straitstimes.com/BreakingNews/World/Story/STIStory_578475.htm-

The UN food agency reported that the number of undernourished people around the world has declined by nearly 10 per cent in 2010 and that this is the first time a drop in famine has been recorded since 1995.

In a hunger report by the Food and Agricuture Organisation (FAO)- there is a fall of 9.6% of people undernourished - 925 million people are undernourished in 2010 compared with 1.023 billion in 2009.

However the FAO insisted that 'the number of undernourished people in the world remains unacceptably high'.

The decline, the first in 15 years, 'is largely attributable to a more favourable economic environment in 2010 - particularly in developing countries - and the fall in both international and domestic food prices since 2008'.

However, 'the fact that nearly a billion people remain hungry, even after the recent food and financial crises have largely passed, indicates a deeper structural problem'.

The UN agency urged governments to 'encourage increased investment in agriculture, expand safety nets and social assistance programmes, and enhance income-generating activities for the rural and urban poor.' Analysis of hunger during financial crisis and recovery also brought to the fore 'the insufficient resilience to economic shocks of many poor countries and households, the FAO warned. -- AFP

After looking at this article, I would like you to reflect on the following:
1. What does the term "undernourished" mean?
2. What are the factors which affect the accessibility of food?
3. What are the ways in which we can encourage food production and accessibility?

Land reclmation

2010-06-27T21:27:00.002+08:00

3 Land Reclamation Ppt

View more presentations from mslim.

Sec 3 EOY Geog Project

2010-05-28T00:57:00.000+08:00

Objective:
1. To study coastal management strategies with reference to Singapore and UK.
2. To make use of ICT in producing a powerpoint.

Task:
To produce a powerpoint evaluating the strategies adopted in coastal management with reference to examples in Singapore and UK.

Before you begin your project, you need to bear the following points in mind.

1 What were the problems encountered by the people living in coastal areas?

2 What strategies were adopted to overcome the problems?

3 How effective are the coastal management strategies?

4 What are the future plans for the areas?

Select a name for your project.

The end-product of your project is a power point presentation comprising 15-20 slides. There will be a presentation session for you to showcase your work.
The deadline for submission is 23 March 2009.

You must plan carefully and allocate duties for each member of your group.

Fill in the forms given to you for this project.

All evidence of collection of information or data or pictures must be properly filed.

You must list the websites or internet resources you use.

New animal species found in Borneo

2010-04-22T20:08:00.002+08:00

Wildlife researchers discovered around 120 new species on Borneo, including a lungless frog, the world's longest insect and a slug that fires "love darts" at its mate.

The tropical rainforest borders Malaysia, Indonesia and Brunei on Borneo and in 2007, the three governments has designated the 220,000-square-kilometre area as the "Heart of Borneo" in a bid to conserve the rainforest.

On average three new species a month and about 123 over the last three years, with at least 600 new species found in the last 15 years – these discoveries showed the wealth of biodiversity on Borneo island and may one day help cure illnesses like cancer and AIDS and contribute to our daily lives.

The "Heart of Borneo" region is home to 10 species of primate, more than 350 birds, 150 reptiles and amphibians and about 10,000 plants that are not found anywhere else in the world. Among them was a seven-centimetre (three-inch) flat-headed frog, known as "Barbourula kalimantanensis" which breathes entirely through its skin instead of lungs. The discoveries also included "Phobaeticus chani", the world's longest stick insect, with a body 36 centimetres long as well as a long-tailed slug that uses "love darts" made of calcium carbonate to pierce and inject a hormone into a mate to increase the chances of reproduction.

Indonesia and Malaysia, the world's two largest exporters of palm oil, account for 85 percent of global production. Palm oil has been used extensively across the globe for biofuel, processed food and toiletries. This has been one of the reasons for deforestation and threatened the survival of near-extinct species – e.g. the pygmy elephant, orangutan, the Sumatran rhinoceros and clouded leopard. Thus there is a need for a balance so that we have a foundation of conservation and sustainable development in order to protect this unique site for future generations.

http://sg.news.yahoo.com/afp/20100422/tap-malaysia-brunei-wildlife-environment-0193655.html?printer=1

Notes on Crustal Movements

2010-04-21T01:37:00.006+08:00

1. Describe, with the aid of diagram, the internal structure of the earth.
a) The crust is formed when a molten mass of rock and metal cooled. It is the outer layer of the earth and it varies in thickness from 5 to 70km.
i) Continental crust consist of granite and is less dense.
ii) Oceanic crust consist of basaltic rocks and 'float'on the mantle.
b) Mantle is the second layer of the earth's structure. It consist of hot and semi-liquid plastic rock .
c) The outer core is liquid and the inner core consists of solid rock.

2. Explain the Continental Drift Theory (Alfred Wegner)
a) all continents were part of one large land mass called 'Pangea". The continents broke up and pieces drifted apart.
b) Evidence of Theory:
i) outline of S. America fit Africa like a jig-saw puzzle.
ii) similar fossil animals in South America and Africa
iii) similar minerals found in South America and Africa.
iv) Mountain ranges in N.America and N.Europe similar.

3. Explain the Plate Tectonic Theory
a) The crust is cracked into pieces called tectonic plates which float on the mantle.
b) Plates move due to convection currents in the mantle.
c) Evidence: i) discoveries of mid-ocean ridges in the Atlantic Ocean and the spreading of the sea floor.
ii) volcanoes, earthquakes and young mountains all occur at the plate boundaries.

4. Identify the crustal plates on a world map.

5.Explain the types of plate movements and features formed at the boundaries.
a) Divergent plate movement (constructive margin) : when crustal plates move apart, molten rock rises from mantle through a fault line. When it comes in contact with the cold ocean water, the magma solidifies to form ridges. Layer upon layer of such solidified magma is formed on top of each other until an oceanic moutain ridge is formed at the sides of the fault line, eg. mid-Atlantic ridge.
b) Convergent plate movement(destructive margin): when two plates meet head on, one will dip below the other forming deep trenches. This is the result of subduction.
E.g. The Australian plate dip below the Eurasian plate forming the Java Trench. As the oceanic crust is force downward, the molten material (magma) force its way up to the surface through the layers of rocks . This results in the formation of the many volcanoes in Indonesia. When two continental plates converges, the sedimentary rocks in between are compressed and folded. Fold mountains are formed.
c) When two plates slide past each other, a transform fault is formed. e.g. San Andreas
Fault is formed when the Pacific Plate slides past the America Plate.

6. Explain the cause of earthquake
Earthquakes occur at the plate boundary because this is th most active part of the earth’s crust. As plates converge, one plate is being pushed underneath another, and a zone of subduction is formed. As one plate moves over the other, the movement is not smooth because the surface of the crust is not smooth. There is friction and this friction causes the movement to jerk.
The crust is also under great stress when the plates move in opposite direction. The stress in the rocks is so tremendous that it finally causes the rocks to jerk free. The release of tension in the form of seismic waves make the ground vibrate.

7. Explain what is the focus and epicentre of an earthquake.
Focus is the place where the earthquake take place. Epicentre is the point on the surface above the focus.

8. Name the instrument used for recording earthquake and state how the intensity of earthquake is measured.
A seismograph is used for recording earthquake. The intensity of earthquake is measured on the Richter scale graded from 1 to 9. The higher the number, the greater the intensity.

9. Describe the effects of earthquakes.
a) vertical and lateral rupture of the crust
b) Tsunami - giant waves travelling up to 700 km/h
c) collapse of buildings and bridges
) deaths and injuries
e) disruption to the transport and communication system
f) other hazards such as fire, flooding
g) landslides on steep slopes.
h) supply of water, gas and sewerage disposal disrupted
i) diseases are rampant because of contaminated water and decomposed bodies
j) many are left homeless suffering from shortage of food, clothing, medicine

10. Explain why some earthquakes are more damaging than others.
Some earthquake causes more damage because the intensity of the earthquake differ. Places located near to the epicentre will experience high intensity of the earthquake and thus suffer the greatest amount of damage.
The extent of damage also depends on the amount of development in the areas where earthquake takes place. An earthquake which struck a desert is less damaging than in a city. The foundations of the buildings and bridges are also important because if the foundation is good, it will withstand the vibration. Developed areas suffer more damages as water and gas pipes broke. Urban areas are heavily built up with dense population densities and heavy traffic movements. As residents in big urban areas usually live in high rise buildings because land is scarce in the cities, damage to properties and loss of lives can be phenomenal as the high rise building collapse when earthquakes occur. As building collapse, other related hazards usually occur such as fire from damaged power lines. Destruction to highways, streets, flyover and bridges leads to widespread traffic congestion and commuters may be killed and hurt. Telephone line and power supply will be disrupted, and this will affect communication with outside world which in turn will hamper rescue work.
The strength of the earthquake also depends on the depth of its origin and the geology of the epicentre. e.g. Mexico, built on layers of mud and sand, vibrates like jelly in the 1985 earthquake which killed 7000.

11. Identify and name earthquake zone on a world map.

12. Suggest ways to reduce damages from earthquake:
a) early warning, e.g. detecting foreshocks by seismometers
b) erection of reinforced bricks and concrete buildings, reinforced bridges
c) shutdown switches for major electricity generators activated by seismic waves.
d) earthquakes drill
e) disaster plan and civil defence force
f) survival kits kept in homes
g) supplies of food, blankets, drinking water stockpile for emergency

13. Define vulcanicity.
The processes by which molten materials (magma) are forced from the earth's interior into the earth's crust or onto the earth's surface. The materials include gases, (e.g. carbon dioxide, hydrogen), liquid and solids(dust and ash)

14. Draw a cross-section of a volcano and label the features: layers of lava and ash,vent, pipe, crater, magma chamber.

15. Identify and explain the formation of volcano and lava plateau.
a) Volcano: At the zone of subduction of two converging plates, the magma is displaced.The hot molten rock materials push their way onto the earth's surface upon pressure release along lines of weakness and escape through a vent in the crust. The lava cools upon contact with the atmosphere and solidifies layer upon layer to form a cone-shaped structure called a volcano.

b) lava plateau: It is formed by outflow of lava along fissures(cracks). It is often dissected by rivers. It weathered to form deep, fertile black soil. e.g. Deccan Plateau

16. Identify and explain the formation of intrusive features such as sill, dyke, batholith
When magma cools and solidifies within the earth's crust without reaching the earth's surface, it form intrusive volcanic features such as sill, dyke and batholith. A sill is formed along bedding planes dyke is formed when magma cuts through layers of sedimentary rock before it cools and solidifies. A batholith is formed when magma cools and solidifies to form a large crystalline rock deep below the crust.

17. Define the terms active, dormant and extinct volcano and to give an e.g. for each.
a) active volcano: shows sign of activities recently. e.g. Mt . Mayon in Philippines
b) dormant volcano: has not erupted recently but will erupt again e.g. Mt Fuji, Japan
c) extinct volcano: will not erupt again e.g. Kilimanjaro (Tanzania)

18. Explain the formation of basic lava cone, acid lava cone, ash and cinder cone and composite volcano with labelled diagrams and an example for each.
a) Acid lava cone is made up of viscous acid lava with high silica content. The acid lava solidifies quickly and does not travel far forming steep convex slopes. It is associated with violent and sporadic eruption. e.g. Mt Mayon

b) basic lava cone is also called a volcanic shield. It is made up of fluid lava with low silica content.It is more mobile and spreads away from the vent before it solidifies forming gentle concave slopes. It is associated with quiet eruption e.g. Mauna Loa (Hawaii)

c) Ash and cinder cone is formed by the successive ejection and accumulation of solid pyroclastic materials. The periodic and violent eruptions cause alternate layers of ash and cinder. e.g. Vulcano (Italy)

d) Composite cone has a stratified structure. There is periodic violent eruptions with alternate layers of lava and ash accumulated.It is high with steep slopes near the summit and gradient decreases toward the base. Parasitic cones develop due to the development of cracks during violent eruptions. e.g. Mt Fujiyama in Japan

19. Describe the formation of caldera, crater lake and volcanic plug and to give an e.g for each.
When magma in the crater and vent solidifies, a cap of solid rock called a plug is formed above the molten material. e.g. Mont Pelee on the island of Martinique.
The plug may prevent magma from passing up the vent and massive pressure builds up,swelling the volcano's base.This may eventually cause a very violent eruption which shatters the top of the volcano into a huge depression called a caldera. Water may fill the caldera to form crater lake such as Lake Toba in Sumatra, Indonesia.

20. Explain the associated features of vulcanicity: hotsprings, fumarole and geysers
a) Hotspring: As groundwater is heated by contact with magma, the superheated groundwater flows quietly in a volcanic region as hotspring.
e.g. Tangkuban Prahu in Java
b) a fumarole refers to the ejection of gases or steam only from the thermal heating of magma.
c) geyser: It is a fountain of hot water and superheated steams which is ejected onto the surface at Intervals. e.g. Old faithful in Yellowstone park,USA

21. Describe the benefits of vulcanicity to man.
a) volcanic regions are often rich in sulphur deposits which can be mined for industrial use.
b) basic lava often produce fertile soil after weathering which is suitable for cultivation.
e.g. fertile volcanic soils in Java and Deccan Plateau in India
c) geothermal power may be utilised for making steam to generate electricity e.g. New Zealand gets 10% of her power supply from geothermal energy.
d) Volcanic areas offer spectacularly beautiful attractions for tourists. e.g Mt Fuji in Japan
e) Volcanic ash can be used to surface roads and manufacture bricks
f) In some parts of the world, valuable materials such as gold, iron and diamonds
have been formed by volcanic activity, and large mining centres have developed.

22. Describe the problems of vulcanicity to man.
a) volcanic eruptions claim many lives and destroy buildings and property,
b) Poisonous gases such as compounds of sulphur, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are produced.
c)ash and volcanic dust ejected by volcanoes may be blown away to pollute the air
d) When snow-capped volcanoes erupt, a sudden flash flood will also result from the melting of snow and ice. Mudflow may also be produced.

23. What are the dangers faced after an earthquake?
There could still be aftershocks of lower magnitudes as there are adjustments to the repositioning of the fault. As many buildings are already weakened by the main shock, the aftershocks will cause more collapse and there will be more casualties. Dead animals and corpse will start to rot and if not disposed quickly, there might be an outbreak of epidemic such as Malaria.

23. Describe the cause of folding.
When the layer of rocks are compressed, the layers of rocks may be folded in a variety of ways. The upfold is called the anticline and the downfold is called the syncline.

24. Draw a simple fold and name the parts .

25. Draw and name the types of fold: symmetrical, assymetrical fold, overfold, recumbent fold and overthrust.

26. Describe the formation of fold mountains with the aid of a diagram.
Over a long period of time, deep deposits build up and the sea bed sinks under this great weight. As plates move nearer, sediments are compressed to form an island in the sea. Further compression caused the layer of rocks to be folded. The anticlines form the fold mountains and the synclines became the sites of seas and valleys. e.g. The convergence of the Indo-Australian plate and the Eurasian plate results in the formation of the Himalayas.

27. Name the young fold mountains on a world map: Himalayas, Andes, Rockies,Alps and Andes.

28. Explain the cause of faulting.
Where relatively rigid part of the crust moves along the lines of weakness, faults are formed. The layers of rocks are displaced horizontally or vertically along the fault lines.
It can be caused by either tensional or compressional forces which are applied to rocks either laterally or vertically.

29. Draw a diagram of a normal fault and label the following: fault line, upthrow downthrow, scarp.

30. Draw and expalin the types of faults: normal, reverse and tear.

31. Explain the formation of a horst, block mountain.
A block mountain refers to a block of crust which is uplifted due to faulting,the smaller of which are called horst. It is formed when a block of crust remains standing tall due to the sinking of the crust on either side of a pair of faults or the uplifting of a rock mass between two faults. e.g. Black Forest in the Rhine Basin.

32. Explain the formation of a graben, rift valley with the aid of diagrams
Rift valleys are steep-sided trenches, the smaller of which are sometimes called graben.
They are caused by either subsidence of a section of the crust between two faults when tensional forces are applied, or then the land on either side of two parallel faults are uplifted due to compression. e.g. East African rift valley

Horst Rift Valley fault scarp

Plates 2011

View more presentations from Xinmin Secondary School Singapore

Earthquake in Qinghai China and Iceland volcanic eruption

2010-04-20T21:33:00.012+08:00

The series of strong earthquakes on 14 April 2010 killed at least 400 people and injured more than 10,000 as houses made of mud and wood collapsed and trapped many in the cold weather. The largest quake was measured by the US Geological Survey to be of magnitude 6.9. Communication broke down and made rescue work more difficult. As many of you would have learnt in Geography, the damage by an earthquake is affected by many other factors than just the magnitude of the earthquake. In the latest report, death toll might be as high as 10 000!

A volcanic eruption in Iceland (Eyjafjallajökull volcano) had made the headlines all over the world - a real life example of the scale of impact an activity/event can have on all of us globally.

The emission of the ash from the volcanic eruption had totally crippled the air transport. Airlines suffered great losses economically as all flights to and in Europe had to be cancelled. Tourists were stranded not only in Europe but also in other parts of the world. Just read from Channel News Asia how some hotels pushed up the hotel rates - one tourist in HK complained that the rates in his hotel increased from 160 Euros to 800 Euros! I must say that this is extortion! Many of those stranded were also worried about how it would affect their jobs and loss of income. Those who were stranded in Singapore even have to seek accomodation across the causeway or in Bintan as most of the hotels were fully booked.

Thank God this volcanic eruption did not impact on the global climate as Mt Pinatabu did. Volcanic eruptions can lower the earth’s temperature for a few years because sulfuric gases can absorb and reflect back the sun’s radiation. When Pinatubo erupted in 1991, global temperatures drop by about 1 degree Fahrenheit (0.6 degrees Celsius) until 1993, according to the U.S. Geological Survey.

Some positive impacts - increase in the demand for land and sea transport in Europe as well as an increase in the use of online conferencing such as SKYPE.

Globalisation

2010-03-17T14:12:00.000+08:00

http://learn.christianaid.org.uk/TeachersResources/secondary/ResourceOverview/simulation.aspx

Secondary simulation games
Fun and interactive, simulations games use role-play and decision-making to explore real life global issues.
The Chocolate Trade Game - Simulation game about fair trade
The Paper Bag Game - Simulation game about poverty
The Poverty Challenge - Simulation game about poverty and sustainable development
The Trading Game - Simulation game about trade and economic development
Trading trainers - Simulation game about labour and fair wages

Videos on Geography of food

2010-02-26T23:14:00.005+08:00

You might want to watch the following videos again and ponder over the following questions:

What is food security?

How does shortage of food production affect health of the farmers and vice versa?

What makes farming difficult in Mali, Africa and Nepal?

What had been done to improve food production?

View the video below which shows you the development of food production. How we progress to increase food production through the green revolution which is moving towards gene revolution (Genetically modified food).

Though Green Revolution helped to increase food production and is aimed at reducing food shortages, examine the problems which resulted as shown in the video.

How can food production be increased through blue revolution? Find out more from the video below:

Sec 3 Geography Project

2010-02-24T13:27:00.004+08:00

Falling Birth rate

2010-01-30T12:48:00.001+08:00

Circle line

2010-01-30T12:39:00.001+08:00

China one child policy

2009-12-02T15:32:00.001+08:00

Is GDP a good measurement of quality of life?

2009-11-29T15:11:00.001+08:00

Read this blogger entry:
http://sgbluechip.blogspot.com/2009/11/is-gdp-good-measurement-of-life-quality.html

Mind map on Natural Vegetation

2009-11-13T02:19:00.005+08:00

Mind map of River studies

2009-11-13T02:18:00.002+08:00

Mind map on Coastal studies

2009-11-13T02:17:00.002+08:00

Mind map on Geography of Food

2009-11-13T02:16:00.004+08:00

Mind map on Development

2009-11-13T02:15:00.003+08:00

Notes on Development

2009-10-20T02:11:00.005+08:00

1. Name a few countries that you think are developed and a few others that are less developed.
Developed countries include: USA, Canada, UK, Italy, Germany, France, and Japan.
Less developed countries include: African countries e.g. Sudan, Ethiopia, Ghana; Asian countries e.g. Vietnam, Myanmar, Nepal; Pacific Island nations e.g. Solomon Islands, Samoa and Fiji.

2. Why would you classify Singapore as a developed or less developed country? Why?
Singapore is a developed country. Reasons include:
There is little physical environment left e.g. seas and coastal areas.
The landscape is mainly made up of concrete high-rise buildings e.g. offices, residences and tarred roads.
Planned development has taken place — the country is well-organised.
Few rural activities and urban activities dominate — commercial and financial activities carried out in these tall buildings; services e.g beauty and hair salons in low-rise buildings earmarked for urban conservation.
Quality urban environment — roads are kept clean daily by road sweepers.

3. What is meant by ‘development’?
Development refers to ‘progressive process aimed at achieving economic growth and as a result, a conducive environment for individuals to enjoy a decent standard of living and quality of life”.

4. Why is development a complex issue?
Difficult to define in the first place due to the following reasons:
Different view points. People have different ideas of what development means. For example, an economist defines it according to the economic growth or the accumulation of wealth; a sociologist may equate development with social progress in a society such as the increasing literacy rate of a population; a political scientist may look at development as a process in political change e.g. when more people are able and willing to vote; a geographer may focus on how development as a process has spread from one region to another, and how it has positively and negatively affected the physical environment.

Development is a continuous process. A country has to plan a series of short-term (five years and below) and long-term (five to ten years or more) goals to reach its targeted level. The success or failure to reach these goals within the time frame decided upon will help the country determine whether it is progressing towards being more developed.

Development is dependent on several factors. The rate at which a country develops differs and some countries seem to be able to develop faster than others. It is possible for a country to move forward or slip backward after reaching a particular level of development. However, success or failure is never simply dependent on one or two factors. A failure in reaching development goals can be due to factors such as political instability or a major environmental disaster e.g. the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami destroyed a large part of Banda Aceh, Indonesia. Success in development may be due to the presence of resources and the effective implementation of the development goals by government.

Wide range of measurements used to measure development. Development is measured according to many different standards within a society. E.g. economic standards such as income and purchasing power, that is, the amount of goods and services a given amount of money can buy. Other standards include social standards such as levels of technology, education, health, and political standards such as freedom of speech and women's rights.

Positive and negative impact of development. The result of development can be positive or negative or both. Positive results include clean water supply, an efficient transportation system which can benefit the majority of the population. Negative results include an increase in air pollution because people can afford to drive cars, or the removal of forests and farmlands to make way for the development of golf courses - these developments benefit only a minority of the population and can bring more harm than good in the long term.

Development is an emotional issue. To determine which countries are developed or which countries are not requires comparisons to be made. This involves labeling countries according to their levels of development. This is a sensitive issue as no country would appreciate being regarded as `under developed' or `backward'.

5. How can countries be classified according to their levels of development?
At present, countries are classified according to Developed Countries (DCs) or Less Developed Countries (LDCs), the latter which are countries at the early stages of development with lower standards of living and a lower quality of life. DCs include USA, Japan, Switzerland and Italy. LDCs include Cambodia, Peru, Ethiopia.
As the classifications can be too general, DCs and LDCs can further be divided according to:
• The old industrialised countries e.g. UK, Germany, France.
• The newly industrialised countries e.g. Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan. • The oil-rich countries e.g. Brunei, Saudi Arabia.
• The centrally-planned economies e.g. North Korea, the former Soviet Union.

6. Define the terms GNP, GDP, Adult literacy rate, Infant mortality rate, urban population and human development index.
· Gross National product(GNP)-Total value of goods and services produced by the citizens of a country in a given year. It includes both the contributions made by the citizens working and investing in the country and the income received by the citizens of that country working and investing overseas.
· Gross Domestic Product (GDP)-Total value of goods and services produced by the citizens and non citizens in the country.
· Adult literacy rate-Percentage of the population aged 15 and above who are able to read, write and understand simple statements.
· Infant mortality rate-The number of deaths of children under the age of one per 1000 live births in a year.
· Life expectancy -Average number of years that a person can expect to live in a particular country.
· Urban population- Percentage of people living in an urban area.
· Human development index (HDI) - A measurement of human progress, which is derived from a combination of indicators — GDP per capita, adult literacy and life expectancy.

7. Describe the three main types of development indicators.
Economic indicators
· GNP is the most common measure. It refers to the total value of goods and services produced by the citizens of the country in a given year and includes both contributions made by the citizens working and investing in the country and the income received by citizens of that country who are
working and investing overseas. It excludes the earnings by non-citizens who worked or invested in the country as this does not stay in the country and thus does not contribute to its development.
Calculated using GNP = A + (B - C) where A is the Gross Domestic Product or the total value of goods and services produced by the citizens and non-citizens in the country.
As the contribution of GNP is affected by population size, a country with a higher population is likely to have larger GNP. In order to ensure accuracy, GNP per capita (per person) is a better measurement;

Classification:
High-income economies (US$ 10 726 or more)
Middle-income economies (US$ 876 - $ 10 725)
Low-income economies (US$ 875 or less)

· Employment structure
With development, a higher percentage of the population will be employed in the secondary and tertiary industries instead of the primary industries

Demographic indicators
Population structure - A LDC usually has a relatively young population — a higher proportion of its population is below 15 years (e.g. India with 36 per cent compared to only 14 per cent in Japan) and a small percentage of population above 65 years (e.g. India with about 4 per cent compared to 20 per cent in Japan).
· Life expectancy - Refers to the number of years that a person can expect to live in a particular country. It reflects the level of and access to healthcare and medical facilities in a country so people in the DCs are expected to live longer than those in the LDCs (e.g. 82 years in Japan compared to 48 years in Ethiopia).
· Infant mortality rate - Refers to the number of deaths of children under the age of one per 1000 live births in a year. Good sanitation facilities, healthcare systems and easy accessibility to hospitals and doctors have contributed to a lower infant mortality rates in the DCs e.g. two per 1000 live births in Singapore.
· Size of urban population - The percentage of people living in an urban area. A large urban population usually indicates that more people are living in towns and cities where most of the secondary and tertiary industries are located. In countries with large primary sectors, most people are likely to live in rural areas.

Social indicators
Access to water and sanitation - The percentage of people who have access to safe drinking water and proper sanitation in the LDCs is generally low.
Adult literacy rate - Refers to the percentage of population aged 15 and above who are able to read, write and understand simple statements. With good education, people can earn higher income and afford to send their children to school to be educated.

Assessing development using HDI

•Human Development Index [HDI]
-An index used by the United Nations Development Programme [UNDP] to measure the level of development in a country.

•Human Development Index [HDI]
-3 considerations – economic well-being, health and education.

•Human Development Index [HDI]
-computed by assigning a value between 0 and 1 to each country
-the closer the index to 1, the higher the level of development

Limitations of HDI.
•More difficult to obtain information from LDCs than DCs due to large informal sector.
•Fails to consider human rights and freedom.
•Time lag between time of publishing and year of data published.

8. With reference to the development indicators, describe the characteristics of uneven development between the DCs and LDCs.
Uneven development between the DCs and LDCs are reflected by the three sets of indicators:

Economic
DCs will have higher GNP per capita (more than US$10 726) because the DCs usually have a higher proportion of secondary and tertiary industries that bring in a higher amount of income compared to LDCs that have predominantly large primary sectors with primary goods e.g. timber, iron ore and rice generating less profit compared to manufactured goods and services.
Hence, the employment structure in the DCs shows a higher proportion of the population in the secondary and tertiary industries instead of the primary industries e.g. Japan, a DC — 70 per cent of the population are working in the tertiary industries, 25 per cent in the secondary industries and only 5 per cent are employed in the primary industries compared to an LDC such as Nigeria where 70 per cent of the population are engaged in primary industries, and 10 per cent and 20 per cent in the secondary and tertiary industries respectively.

Demographic indicators
· A DC has a relatively older population compared to a LDC e.g. almost 20 per cent of the population in Japan are above 65 years compared to 4 per cent in India; 14 per cent of the population in Japan are below 15 years compared with 36 per cent of population in India.
· Life expectancy — people in the DCs generally live much longer than those in the LDCs due to better healthcare and medical facilities e.g. the average Japanese can expect to live to about 82 years compared to the Ethiopians (48 yrs) and the Cambodians (56 yrs).
· Infant mortality rate — good sanitation facilities, comprehensive healthcare systems and easy accessibility to hospitals and doctors have all contributed to lower infant mortality rates in the DCs e.g. two per 1000 live births in Singapore compared to 100 per 1000 live births in Ethiopia.
· Size of urban population — usually higher in the DCs than in LDCs, with the exception of an emerging trend in some of the DCs where people who used to live in the cities are relocating to the suburbs due to an increase in private car ownership or increasing congestion and levels of pollution in cities; in the LDCs, expectations of better employment opportunities and higher standards of living have also contributed to rapid growth in urban populations, giving rise to slums and squatter settlements. These settlements are often sited next to open sewers and piles of garbage.

Social indicators
· Lack of safe drinking water and poor sanitation (including garbage and wastewater disposal) are leading causes of deaths in LDCs. DCs like USA and Japan have 100 per cent access to safe drinking water and good sanitation, unlike Nigeria where only 39 per cent of the population has access to safe drinking water and 36 per cent with access to proper sanitation.
· Adult literacy rate — refers to the percentage of population aged 15 and above who are able to read, write and understand simple statements. A high literacy rate means people are more likely to be employed in the secondary and tertiary industries, which translates into higher GNP per capita. The DCs usually have higher literacy rate compared to the LDCs e.g. 99.8 per cent in USA, Japan and UK compared to 52.2 per cent in India and 48 per cent in Laos, with the exception of countries such as Vietnam that has a high literacy rate of 94 per cent.

9. Discuss the differences in the quality of life and standard of living between the DCs and LDCs.
Quality of life and standard of living can be measured using the Human Development Index (HDI), where three indicators — economic (GDP per capita), social (e.g. adult literacy rate) and demographic (e.g. life expectancy) are used. Economic wealth (GDP per capita) reflects the standard of living while quality of life is reflected by the educational achievements and health data. The average scores of individual countries for each of the three indicators are calculated and compared.

The HDI ranges from zero to one and is divided into three categories — high (0.800 to 1.000), medium (0.500 — 0.799) and low (0.499 and below). Generally a high GDP per capita would contribute to a higher HDI e.g. DCs such as France, the Netherlands and Britain have high GDP per capita of over US$ 26 000 and high HDIs of between 0.93 and 0.95.

On the other hand, LDCs such as Laos and Myanmar have low GDP per capita of US$ 1720 and US$1027 and low medium HDIs of 0.534 and 0.551 respectively. DCs have very good access to clean water (100 per cent for France, the Netherlands and Britain), a very high literacy rate of 99 per cent, and high life expectancy of more than 78 years compared to LDCs.

LDCs have low access to clean water (between 34 and 84 per cent), low literacy rates e.g. 39 per cent for India (with the exception of Vietnam and Myanmar), and a low life expectancy e.g. 54 years for Cambodia.

A country may be rich in terms of GDP per capita but the accumulated wealth does not necessarily improve the quality of life of all the people living in the country e.g. USA has the highest GDP per capita (US$ 37 800) in.2003 compared to Canada (US$ 29 700) but its world ranking in terms of HDI was 8th compared to Canada's 4th position. Some countries may not be as wealthy as others but their level of human development may be higher e.g. among the five countries with medium and low levels of human development (Malaysia, Russia, Brazil,

Indonesia and Bolivia), Russia may have a slightly lower GDP per capita than Malaysia but its HDI is ranked higher. For the LDCs in Africa, such as Niger, Ethiopia, Zambia, Nigeria and Tanzania, low GDP per capita corresponds to low HDI too.

10. Explain how the Core-Periphery Model accounts for the different levels of development between countries and within countries.
The Core-Periphery Model was developed in the 1960s to attempt to explain the differences in regional development between countries and within countries. According to the theory, core countries or regions refer to countries or regions that are richer and more developed; periphery countries or regions refer to countries or regions that are poorer and less developed (can also refer to countries that have been colonised by the core countries).

Unequal development between countries
The theory proposes that:
• Development was initially brought about by natural advantages such as the presence of natural resources, a good natural harbour and plentiful of cheap labour. These advantages stimulate the development process.
• Over time, they reinforce the region's reputation, which, in turn, attracts more and more investments until a core country is formed.
• Equipped with all the acquired advantages, the core country generally has better infrastructure, more skilled labour and higher income compared to periphery countries.
• Periphery countries have the natural and human resources that core countries need.
• Hence, the core countries which possess military and economic advantages can take control of the periphery countries through different ways e.g. war, colonisation and unfair trading rules.
• The periphery countries which lack the advantages to challenge the core countries become dependent on them for trade and development. Their economic growth is slowed down or stagnated by continued exploitation while the core countries continue to grow at their expense and enjoy much higher income and better standard of living than the periphery countries.

Unequal development within countries
• The Core-Periphery Model can also be found within a country.
• Generally it is more obvious in less developed countries than in developed countries.
• The periphery regions supply raw materials or cheap labour to the core, which are usually the high growth urban areas within the country.
• The core grows at the expense of the periphery and becomes the spatial concentration of wealth in the country. The result is a great increase in the standard of living.
• As the country develops, the core may expand and stimulate the growth in the periphery region (spread effect).
• This may benefit the periphery reducing inequalities in terms of income or standard of living between the core and the periphery.
• However, the core's growth may have a negative impact on the periphery (backwash effect). Negative effects, such as the draining of investment, labour and raw materials from the periphery, may outweigh the benefits produced by the spread effect, causing the periphery region to suffer.
• An example of how the Core-Periphery Model has operated within a country is China and the results are evident in the great disparity in income level and standard of living between the thriving cities located on the eastern coastal region (core) and the villages in the interior of mainland China (periphery).

11. Explain the limitations of the Core-Periphery Model
Like all theories, the model has its limitations. The main limitation is its failure to explain the rapid growth rates of some East Asian and Southeast Asian economies, such as Hong Kong and Singapore, which were once colonies of core countries. These economies were able to achieve high growth rates of about 8 to 10 per cent annually and a high standard of living comparable with some of the core countries.

12. Explain the factors affecting development.
Development is often the result of a combination of factors over a long period of time. Such factors include:

Social and cultural factors
• These affect the level of education of the population, fertility rate and birth control, work ethics, the provision and accessibility of healthcare services and medical facilities.
• Social norms and cultural beliefs strongly affect people's attitudes towards birth rate and family size. In LDCs, high birth rates and large family sizes are the norm.
• A large population and a high birth rate hinder development as resources have to be spent on providing health and medical care, food and education for the population. Fewer resources
are channeled to improve or develop the quality of life of the general population.
• In the LDCS, the children lack opportunities for education as their parents cannot afford to send them to school. Besides, the number of schools may be limited due to the lack of properly trained teachers and facilities in rural areas, leading to low literacy rates e.g. Laos and India have low literacy rates of 48.7 per cent and 52.2 per cent respectively.
• A low literacy rate has a negative impact on economic development — people with little education face difficulties in learning new skills and embracing modern technology. This
leads to a shortage of skilled labour, which hinders development of secondary and tertiary industries in the country.

Environmental factors
• Natural disasters e.g. hurricanes, droughts and earthquakes can strike any country regardless of its level of development .
• However, responses to these natural disasters differ greatly between the DCs and LDCs. The DCs usually have the resources and manpower to deal with natural disasters effectively and help those affected by it to recover quickly. E.g. the hurricane that hit New Orleans in 2005 flooded most of the city, displacing hundreds of thousands of residents; USA could respond without any assistance from other countries.
• In Indonesia, however, the volcanic eruptions and earthquakes in May 2006 near Yogyakarta brought widespread economic hardship to the residents because the country did not have the necessary manpower nor the resources to deal with the disaster — foreign aid was needed - the Asian Development Bank pledged US$ 60 million in loans and the United Nations planned a six-month relief effort.
• Many LDCs are agricultural countries; natural disasters can ruin their harvest and income. E.g. India and Bangladesh experience severe monsoon floods almost annually; prolonged droughts in Ethiopia and Somalia are common.
• The already limited funds for development in the LDCs are diverted to relief efforts, further hindering the development process in these countries.
• Man-made disasters can also hinder development e.g. overgrazing, deforestation and poor land management can lead to severe soil erosion, loss of soil fertility and desertification.
• Construction of expensive irrigation system or the use of chemical fertilisers may now be necessary to restore soil fertility, so that the land can support crops or natural vegetation.

Historical factors
• Many LDCs were former colonies and become dependent on their colonial governments both economically and politically. • Examples — India, Malaysia and Singapore were ruled by the British, Indonesia was a Dutch colony and Vietnam was under French rule.
• The colonial governments did help to develop their colonies by building basic infrastructure e.g. railway system in India, introducing rubber plantations and developing tin mines in Malaysia. However, helping their colonies develop was not the main purpose of colonisation.
• Colonial governments wanted natural resources that could be used for their own industrialisation and development. The outflow of resources from the colonies resulted in these colonies unable to fully develop their own economies.

Economic factors
• Presence of natural resources (e.g. oil, iron ore, coal) in the country helps in its development
• Many LDCs have rich mineral resources, however, this natural advantage does not benefit
the country because the mining industries tend to be controlled by a few large companies.
• While these companies reap the profits, little of the wealth is distributed to the rest of the population, hence, the country remains underdeveloped with poor infrastructure.
• In the DCs, e.g. Britain, much of its early economic development stemmed from the presence of coal in South Wales, northern England and central Scotland. The wealth from the mining industry was invested to develop the country and raise its standard of living.
• The quality of labour can hinder development. In the LDCs, with low literacy rates, workers earn low wages.
• Most of the wages will be spent on basic necessities, such as food, clothing and housing, and they are left with little or no savings.
• With little savings, there is little or no money left for education. This results in a vicious cycle of poverty in the country.
• A way to break out of the poverty cycle is through cumulative causation.

Political factors
• Government can set development goals, which include economic growth and how economic benefits can be more evenly distributed to improve the quality of life of the population. These goals can be reviewed after a period of time and new ones set so that development is continuous.
• To achieve these goals, government must be effective, well-organised, accountable and transparent in policy-making and implementation, free from corruption and seen to be both fair and just to its people.
• Government should ensure political stability so there is a stable and peaceful environment for businesses to develop and carry out their operations, which in turn attracts foreign investors.
• Government should implement sound policies e.g. investing in education to provide a skilled workforce for the economy and implementing a comprehensive industrial policy that provides incentives, such as infrastructure and tax relief, that encourages investment.
• Grassroots and non-governmental organisations (e.g. cooperatives, labour unions, women's groups) must be drawn into public debate and involved in policy-making, with the aim of developing a strong civil society participating in public affairs.

13. What are some steps a government can adopt to promote development?
• The government must be effectively organised, accountable and transparent in policy-making and implementation, free from corruption and actively promotes justice. A fair and just government gives investors confidence that their investments are used to develop businesses and not siphoned off due to corruption.
• The government can ensure political stability in the country — a stable and peaceful environment is thus created for businesses to develop and carry out their operations. This will attract foreign investments.
• The government can implement good policies, such as investing in education, so that its population is equipped with skills that are attractive to investors. It is also beneficial to have a comprehensive industrial policy that provides incentives, such as infrastructure and tax relief, to encourage investment.
• The government must involve grassroots and non-governmental organisations (e.g. labour unions, women's groups, cooperatives) in public debate and in policy-making with the aim of developing a civil society participating in public affairs.
• Bothshort term (five year or less) and long term (five to ten years or more) development goals can be set. These must be reviewed and new goals put in place to ensure continuity in the development process. By owning their homes (e.g. 80 per cent of Singaporeans own subsidised HDB flats).
• By having sufficient finances (CPF, savings and investments) to continue to live a reasonably good life.
• Be healthy and fit right into old age.
• Putting in place medical insurance schemes e.g. Medisave and Medishield to take care of medical care.

14. State how the development strategies promote national development.

Economic

Agricultural
• Economically affordable so that the development benefits all farmers and not just the rich minority.
• Economically feasible so that a balance is struck between the use of mechanisation to increase productivity and maintaining employment, so farmers are not forced to look for work in towns and cities. Rural-urban migration puts pressure on urban areas in the country.
• Technologically feasible — suitable technology chosen to suit land conditions.
• Socially acceptable - helping farmers who do not own land or own very small plots to organise themselves into cooperatives to share resources so that the farms can be worked more efficiently.

Industrial
§ Changing from a predominantly agricultural-based economy to an industrialised one, which provides more employment opportunities and higher and more stable income for the workers.
§ Ensuring easy access to raw materials so manufacturing industries can add value to raw materials by processing them into finished products. Sale of these finished products will help the country earn foreign currency crucial to economic development.
§ Providing or improving infrastructure essential for industrial development e.g. water and power supply, efficient transport and communication systems and port facilities which benefit the whole country.
§ Building up a well-trained and skilled labour force needed in secondary and tertiary industries.
§ Implementing sound economic policies for the expansion of the consumer markets for finished products.

Demographic
Population Growth

Rapid population increase (due to high birth rates) must be controlled so that resources can be channelled into areas, such as education and healthcare, which in turn improves quality of life, living conditions and income levels.
Educating couples on family planning and the benefits of having small families will help to reduce birth rates.
Improving healthcare so that the infant mortality rate is reduced, thereby reducing high birth rates.
Giving women greater access to education will help to raise their social status, give them freedom to decide when they will get married and allow them to choose between using birth control and having more children. With education, women are more likely to have career aspirations.

Social
Healthcare services and Education
§ Improve standard of living by providing safe drinking water, good sanitation, good housing, sufficient food, good access to healthcare services etc. to reduce death rates in a country.
§ Investment in healthcare and education can help create greater career opportunities for the people to increase their income levels. An educated workforce is crucial for effective transfer of technology and skills.

15. Describe and evaluate strategies used to promote national development in Singapore
For the development of Singapore, strategies used include:
• Setting up infrastructure for industrialisation since the 1960s — roads, power supply, water supply, port.
• Setting up the Economic Development Board to promote the country and to attract foreign investors.
• Improving the business environment e.g. providing tax incentives for foreign investors.
• Promoting the use of English as a functional language in school and the work place — it attracts both foreign investments and foreign talents.
• Investing in education for both men and women to provide for a skilled work force, which can be trained and retrained for future industries, thus opening up more career opportunities for young Singaporeans.

The factors above bring about economic development which translates into higher revenues that can be used for national development.

• Providing a clean and hygienic environment for all Singaporeans and for businesses to operate.
• Ensuring affordable healthcare and adequate medical facilities and services such as hospitals, clinics.
• Ensuring that clean, safe drinking water is available to all households.
• Setting up good waste disposal facilities and services to improve the well-being of Singaporeans.

The factors above ensure that the work force is in good health. Good health brings about increased productivity and efficiency at the work place.

Demographically, the government is trying to encourage Singaporean couples to give birth to more children to slow down the onset of an ageing population. Measures used include providing tax rebates, longer childcare leave, childcare centre subsidies and encouraging the immigration of young professional couples to boost the skilled work force.
In order to reduce the social and financial burden of the country in having to look after the elderly, Singaporeans are urged to plan for their old age:
• By owning their homes (e.g. 80 per cent of Singaporeans own subsidised HDB flats).
• By having sufficient finances (CPF, savings and investments) to continue to live a reasonably good life.
• Be healthy and fit right into old age.
• Putting in place medical insurance schemes e.g. Medisave and Medishield to take care of medical care.

16. Discuss the efforts made to alleviate uneven development at the international level.
• To alleviate uneven development between the DCs and LDCs, it is imperative for the LDCs to be given financial aid (through loans, guarantees), skilled professionals and relevant technology (technical assistance especially for specific projects and programmes) after they have gained political independence.
• International organisations, such as the Asian Development Bank and World Bank, focus not only on economic development but also on social and human development in the LDCs.
• For example:
- Asian Development Bank — conducts research and provides funds for countries in the Asia-Pacific region — it focuses on eradicating poverty, improving the status of women and managing the environment e.g. in 2005, it provided an US$ 1 million grant to improve urban living conditions in the central region of Vietnam. Drainage channels were developed and water supply and sanitation systems improved.
- World Bank — provides financial and technical assistance to the LDCs, plays a supportive role in its mission to eradicate global poverty, improve standards of living and provides loans for projects on improving healthcare and education e.g. between 1996 and 2005, the World Bank provided over 60 per cent of the total cost of a project to develop villages in northeast Brazil, where infrastructure (e.g. water and electricity facilities) is put in place and mechanisation for agriculture provided, thus improving the
lives of 7.5 million villagers.
- However, many of these LDCs e.g. African countries have been receiving foreign aid (e.g. from USA) for many years and yet their economic and human development remain low or even declined in some countries. One reason is that the foreign aid is given in the form of loans to be repaid over a number of years and these LDCs usually spend most of their earnings repaying interests on these loans. Often, the aid does not reach the people who really need it. Some of this aid may end up in the hands of corrupt officials or were invested in military equipment because of ongoing civil war. E.g. Ethiopia received US$ 1 billion in aid between 1982 and 1985 and yet its GDP per capita remained very low at US$ 94 in 2003 because almost 90 per cent of loan was spent on military development.
- Under the Millennium Goals 2005, foreign aid is also provided for relief and emergency assistance, as well as repayment of foreign debts. A more open, rule-based nondiscriminatory trade and financial system has allowed more duty-free goods from the LDCs to enter DCs, which helps the LDCs earn foreign currency. Between 1990 and 2002, the average total income of the world increased by 21 per cent, average life expectancy was raised from 63 to 65 years and the number of people living in extreme poverty has declined by 130 million.

17. With reference to studies you have made, explain how the government and social practices can affect the levels of development in a country.

Social practices:
• Determine the birth rate and family size in a country.
• In the LDCs, social norms favour high birth rates and large families. Both hinder development in the country as resources are mainly channelled to support a young population and less for the general population.
• With large families, children are less likely to have educational opportunities, leading to low literacy rates in the country (e.g. Laos with 48.7 per cent and India with 52.2 per cent).
• Leading to a workforce with low skills.
• A hindrance to the development of secondary and tertiary industries, which can help to increase the wages and encourage savings and investment (both needed for economic development to take place).

Government:
• Arrest high population growth through the implementation of population control policies such as encouraging the sterilisation of women (India) or the one-child policy in China.
• Reduces infant mortality rates so more children can grow to maturity, thus reducing the high birth rates.
• Have education policies which encourage women to be educated so they can have career aspirations and become independent economically.
• Set up schools, especially in rural areas, so children can become literate adults thus increasing the literacy rate of the country. Literate adults can acquire skills needed for the industries, which in turn help them earn higher wages and break out of the poverty cycle.
• Nurture a skilled work force — Singapore has a bilingual policy, where English is the medium of instruction for all subjects except Mother Tongue. English is used for international trade and commerce and hence promoting its use is a pragmatic andeffective strategy to attract foreign investment and foreign talents — both vital for achieving a high level of economic development in the country.
• With increased wages, incomes will rise, providing more money for investment in economic development, as well for raising the standard of living in a country.
• Reinvest the revenue in infrastructure to support the industries and attract more investments.
• Ensure political stability in the country so a safe business environment is created for day-to-day activities to be carried out.

18. Describe two ways in which international organisations can help to promote the development of the LDCs.
International organisations can help them:
• By providing loans to build healthcare and medical facilities to reduce the very high infant mortality rate of 33 per 1000 live births.
• By granting foreign aid which can be used to provide safe drinking water or build proper sanitation systems so the countries have clean and hygienic environment.
• By providing education or training of teachers to raise the literacy rate. With education, more career opportunities will be available for the people.
Multinational companies can be attracted to set up secondary and tertiary industries in the countries.

19. Evaluate the following strategies to promote national development with named examples:
•Improving water supply and sanitation facilities in less developed regions
•Improving education standards in less developed regions
•Population control in less developed regions
•Job creation & financial assistance for people in less developed regions

•Improving water supply and sanitation facilities in less developed regions
- key to achieving development
- Case of Ahmedabad in Gujarat, India
41% of 3.5 million people live in slums and squatters
25% live without toilet facilities
Extreme poverty widespread
Improving water supply and sanitation facilities in less developed regions

Parivartan Slum Networking Programme

Aims to help region develop by improving lives of slum dwellers

Provision of basic infrastructure: water supply and underground sewerage

Supported by local government, funded by local banks

Monthly monitoring meetings, future planning sessions

Training sessions on proper use of facilities

Success?
ØBenefited 56,000 people in >40 slums
ØExpanded to include 59 more slums
ØDeath rates declined from 6.9 per 1,000 people to 3.7 per 1,000 people
ØFewer people falling ill
ØIncreased standard of living
ØHelped region to develop

•Improving education standards in less developed regions
- Education is key to seeking employment
- Training and development programmes would enhance chances

- Case of Hill Tribes in Thailand
Most live in extreme poverty
Lack formal education, low standard of living
• Improving education standards in less developed regions

Hill Tribe Education Project

Established in 1998 under government’s policy to provide, ‘Education for All’

Formal and non-formal education programmes developed to suit needs of communities

Academic subjects and life skills taught

Volunteer teachers from more developed region teach in community learning centre

Sustainable farming methods taught to local farmers

Success?
ØMany are able to obtain employment in cities
ØAgricultural production increased
ØGeneral increase in income

Challenges?
ØGeographical isolation inhibits government outreach
ØCommunication barriers between volunteers and hill tribes

•Population control in less developed regions
- Booming population stresses limited resources
- Impacts availability of jobs, housing and access to education
- Drastic measures implemented in some countries

Case of China: population boom in 1970s
1979 ‘One Child’ Policy to reduce birth rate
Volunteers recruited to promote late marriage, late childbearing and the use of contraception

Challenges?
ØMore effective in urban than in rural areas
ØRural dwellers were mainly farmers who needed additional help on farms
ØGender ration imbalance as Chinese favour males to females

§Current measures:
ØAttempts to balance gender ratio announced in December 2006
Ø‘One Child’ Policy amended to ensure there will be sufficient people to support elderly in the future
•Job creation & financial assistance for people in less developed regions
- high rate of unemployment indicates many are unable to meet basic needs
- governments play a key role in creating more job opportunities for people
- success of which would increase standard of living

Case of The Philippines
§ Most of the poor lack formal education or skills training
§ Difficult to gain employment in formal jobs
§ Most end up working in the informal sector
§ Little attention paid to this group
§ Kapit-Bitsig Laban sa Kahiraopan [KALAHI],
or, ‘Linking Arms Against Poverty’
§ Aims to increase employment rate and income of the poor
§ Resources provided to informal sector
§ Government works with NGOs to assess viability to business ventures before loans are offered
§ Microfinance, or small loans, were given to small businesses
§ Ultra-poor given interest free loans
§ Programme supported by several other NGOs and private organisations
§ Poor given training and advice to run businesses effectively

Success?
§ 600,000 agricultural jobs created in rural areas
§ 3 million businesses assisted
§ 1.7 million provided employment through job placement schemes

Challenges?
§ Reduce income gap between rich and poor
§ Poor need to increase market access to boost their businesses
§ More volunteers needed in outreach programmes

more Q&A @ http://comhumgeog.blogspot.com/search/label/Development

Notes on Geography of Food

2009-10-20T02:02:00.005+08:00

1. Describe the changes in food consumption in both the DCs and LDCs.
• Amount of food consumed: DCs still consume more than the LDCs but the LDCs are closing the gap. Between 1997 and 1999, the DCs consumed 3380 calories whereas LDCs consumed 2681 calories; most of the increase is in East Asia e.g. China.
• The rate of increase in food consumption is greater in LDCs compared to the DCs; by year 2030, LDCs would have increased food consumption by almost 14 per cent to reach 3050 calories whereas the rate for DCs is only 3.5 per cent to reach 3500 calories.
• Food preferences: In DCs, more meat, fish, fruits, vegetables and high-value food are being consumed than cereals, roots and tubers; in LDCs, the staple, rice, is showing a slight decline but consumption of wheat is increasing. Significant increases in the consumption of vegetable oils and other types of food are also adding variety to the diet.

2. Why are the LDCs moving towards the production of non-staple foods?
• Worldwide increase in the demand for non-staple food.
• With the increase in demand, the price for such foods has risen, making their cultivation more profitable.
• Where traditional countries producing these non-staple foods cannot cope with the increased demand, LDCs are now able to make up for the shortfall by exporting food crops.
• With improvements in transport and food storage, LDCs which are located far away are now able to provide raw materials for the traditional countries to produce processed food or prepared meals.

3. Explain why variations persist in food consumption between the DCs and the LDCs.
• Economic wealth — DCs have greater purchasing power to acquire high-value food, greater amounts of food and the ability to import food products.
• The urban lifestyle in DCs whereby high-value food is promoted and marketed also contributes to the higher consumption level.
• Advancement in technology creates optimum conditions for food production, thus increasing yields leading to a decrease in the cost of food production and hence food becomes more affordable.
• Some EU countries promote the production of certain crops e.g. sugar beet, beef, wheat, wine by giving food subsidies to farmers growing such products.
• Food stability — DCs attain food stability and security by stockpiling and in the event that there is a shortage, these stock piles will help to maintain supply and prices. LDCs, on the other hand, face • Large-scale natural disasters e.g. drought or floods which can significantly reduce the amount of food produced.
• Food instability — low surplus of food stored from previous seasons to alleviate food shortage; inability to purchase additional food supplies during extreme food shortages.
• Socio-political factors disrupt food production e.g. rural-urban migration results in a lack of young, able-bodied males working on the farms. Young males stricken by illnesses such as HIV/AIDS and malnutrition also lead to a lack of work force.
• Lack of capital — farmers are unable to invest in advanced technology to increase yields.

4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of government intervention in food production.

Subsidising food production
Advantages
• Encourages farmers to grow certain crops especially those in demand.
• Keeps food prices stable or affordable for locals.
• Increases demand for local produce.
Disadvantages
• Decreases the range of food crops that can be produced.

Controlling trade of food items
Advantages
• Focuses more on local trade.
• Less dependence on food imports.
• In times of bumper harvests, the surplus could be stockpiled. In lean times, the surplus can be sold to stabilise food prices.

Disadvantages
• Prevents or stops cheap food imports or free trade.
• It is a form of protectionism or unfair trade.
.
Controlling ownership of land
Advantages
• Collective ownership allows farmers to share equally what they have produced.
• Small farms can be bought and consolidated to make them more efficient through collective management e.g. use of machinery and construction of irrigation canals.
• Farms in communist countries e.g. Vietnam and China can now be owned by farmers and this has brought about farm productivity.
Disadvantages
• Collective ownership has not given farmers incentives to work harder to increase productivity.

5. What is the difference between the Green Revolution and the Blue Revolution?
Both refer to ways to increase food production. In the Green Revolution, the massive increase in food production is through increased yields from existing farmlands whereas for the Blue Revolution, the increase in food production is through aquaculture, the cultivation of aquatic organisms e.g. molluscs and crustaceans from existing water resources e.g. freshwater lakes and rivers, and from seawater resources such as estuaries, bays and lagoons.

6. Advantages and Disadvantages of Green Revolution and Blue Revolution.

Green Revolution
- was the first systematic attempt to make modern technology for farming available to LDCs
-the aim was to reduce food shortage by increasing food production and to help subsistence farmers in LDC to increase their income
-High-yielding varieties eg improved strains of rice, wheat and other cereals
-Modern irrigation methods ie the practice of supplying water to the land through artificial means and enables farmers to increase the amount of water that their crops receive.
-Use of chemicals eg fertilizers, pesticides

Disadvantages
-chemical fertilizers can lead to water pollution
-machineries and pesticides lead to air pollution
- Singling out certain crops for mass growing lowers agricultural diversity.
-This means loss of certain genetic traits on non preferred strains of crops.

Blue Revolution
-was an attempt to protect marine life and to ensure sufficient seafood, especially fish, for present and future generations
-encourage fish farming where farmers rear fish in tanks, ponds or enclosed areas under special conditions that promote growth

-as a result of the Blue revolution, there has been a significant increase in the amount of fish available which results in lower prices of fish.
-The compelling attraction of intensive commercial aquaculture is that it generates export revenue that can be used to pay foreign debt

Disadvantages
-Shrimp ponds, which now dot coastlines from Taiwan to Ecuador, are capital intensive and have led to the destruction of thousands of hectares of mangrove forests. They've also generated steady flows of polluted wastewater and contributed to the decline of wild shrimp fisheries.

-The owners of the ponds tend to be businesspeople and urban investors. And the shrimp produced don't grace the dinner dishes of the hungry poor.
-Increase in the commercial fish harvest will come at the expense of both wild fish stocks and the environment. Major disease and pollution problems are already emerging in Japan. Fish waste and uneaten fish food have accumulated on the sea bottom.
-In some places the sludge below cage sites is more than 30 centimetres thick. The waste stifles the growth of aquatic organisms and causes water quality to deteriorate. Intensive coastal fish farming has also been linked to 'red tides' - an explosive growth of toxic algae that can kill fish and fatally poison people who eat contaminated seafood.

7. Give an example of how a political factor, an economic factor, a physical factor, a social factor and a technological factor can affect the amount of food produced in a region.
The production of wet rice in India (region) can be affected by the following:
• Physical factor:
The tropical monsoon climate of India with its hot and wet season, such as during the southwest monsoon, provides plenty of rainfall but during the hot-dry season, there is insufficient water. So to ensure there is sufficient water for the rice crops, water must be stored and made available during the dry period
• Technological factor:
The use of Green Revolution methods to grow high-yield rice varieties e.g. IR36 which requires high amount of fertilisers, pesticides and water.
• Economic factor:
A lot of capital is required to grow high-yield rice varieties such as IR36; most of these farmers borrow from banks to finance rice growing
• Social factor:
Land fragmentation — most of the rice is grown on small pieces of land usually subdivided through inheritance. However, these small farms can be consolidated to share resources e.g. irrigation works, buying and sharing machines.
• Political factor:
The government's provision of training for farmers to engage in growing IR36 from preparing the land, to applying fertilisers and pesticides and harvesting. These resulted in India's rice production increasing from 60 millions tonnes in 1970 to 110 tonnes by 1995. India is now almost self-sufficient in rice production and may even export rice in future.

8. What is the outlook of future food supplies? Comment on the positive and negative points and write a concluding statement to weigh the concluding effect.
Positive points
• Countries like Brazil and Mexico (developing countries) could increase their cereal exports.
• Increasing demand for food must be met by greater productivity derived from selective breeding and better management of animals.
• The Green Revolution combined with more intensive irrigation and wider use of fertilisers has improved seeds and specially bred livestock. This provides the increasing population with food even if the agricultural increase has slowed down.
• As population growth is slowing down, the demand for food is relieved.
• Better transport systems will result in more efficient distribution of food.
• Less favourable areas e.g. the Amazon Basin can be brought into cultivation.
• Relaxation of trade restrictions removes barriers, reduces local prices of food and increases the variety of food and its products.

Negative Points
• Less developed countries like China, Indonesia and Egypt are predicted to import large amounts of cereals in the future.
• Consumption of livestock products are predicted to increase significantly especially in the less developed countries, putting pressure on farmers to intensify farming practices.
• Over-dependence on technology for food production can have negative impacts on the environment and people's health.

Concluding statement:
The future of food supply looks optimistic with possibly even more food produced for a world population which is growing relatively slower.

9. Explain what is Genetically Modified Foods.
Genetic engineering in crop production is not a new concept but the precision and the direct manipulation of genetic material surpasses the traditional method. In the traditional way of genetic engineering, desired traits are selected through crosses between crops and their wild relatives.
This method is laborious and less precise when compared to modern genetic engineering.

Modern genetic engineering uses recombinant DNA technology (also known as gene technology or modern biotechnology) which allows certain desired genetic traits to be transferred into the crop plant from wild relatives, other distantly related plants or from any other organisms totally unrelated to the crop plants. These genetically modified plants (GM plants) are then cultivated to produce GM foods.

A crop plant can develop resistance to insects if the gene for toxin production from the bacterium bacillus thuringiensis has been incorporated into it. This toxin is currently used as a conventional insecticide and is considered safe for human consumption. GM crops which permanently produced this toxin have been shown to require lower quantities of insecticides.
Another example is achieving viral resistance in crop plants. By introducing a gene from certain viruses which cause diseases in plants to a crop plant, the GM crop plant is now less susceptible to plant diseases. This translates into higher yields for the farmer.

10. Describe some of the possible effects of genetic engineering on food production and crop cultivation.
· The use of biotechnology which includes the modification of genetic make-up of food.
· It increases yield as well as the efficiency of its production.
· It can result in solving the food shortage problem the world is facing. However, the world population may begin to increase at a faster pace.
· The long term effects GM food is also not know and could have detrimental effects on people who consume such food.
· The poorer farmers in developing countries will not be able to afford such genetically modified hybrids and this contribute to the widening gap between the rich and the poor.

10. Present the various views on genetic engineering.
· Some people feel that GM food may not be completely safe.
· Companies producing GM food may not be honest in revealing the contents/ingredient of the food.
· Consumers have the right to know the contents of the food they eat.
· There may be some long term effects which are still unknown and tested.
· This may even lead to health problems and possible new incurable diseases.
Some people suggested labeling product which contain GM food.
However, labelling could affect the sales of the product.
Businessmen involved in the production of traditional products will be unhappy with GM food as it poses as a perfect competitor to his farmed food.
GM food belongs to the new economy where e-commerce prevails.
Many yuppies are attracted to the upbeat packaging and scientific way the food is being produced.
As people become more aware of the dangers of the GM foods, they would most probably switch to consuming naturally grown foods.

11. Suggest why the development of genetically modified seeds has taken so long.
• Researchers need time to research and develop the seeds.
• Time is also needed for the seeds to grow and mature into plants in the fields.
• Several trials are needed in the fields.
• Strict control over GM plants as people are worried about these plants contaminating traditional plants especially during field trials.

More Q & A @ http://comhumgeog.blogspot.com/search/label/Agriculture

Notes on Coastal Studies

2009-10-20T01:55:00.004+08:00

1. State and differentiate the three agents that could transform a coast. Three agents are waves, tides and currents.

• Waves refer to the rise and fall of the water surface in the sea or ocean when the wind blows over it. Depending on the wave energy, waves can build up (constructive waves) or erode a beach (destructive waves).

• Tides refer to the daily and alternate rise and fall of sea level seen along ocean coasts primarily due to the gravitational pull of the Moon and, to a lesser extent, the Sun. These pulls on the Earth and its water produce two high tides on opposite sides of the Earth when the Moon is very close to the Earth and low tides when the Moon is further away.
At certain times of the month, when the Earth, the Sun and the Moon are all in a straight line, extremely high tides (spring tide) are experienced. While very low tides (neap tide) occurs when the Earth, Moon and Sun are at right angles to each other. The difference between the high and low tides is called tidal action and it affects the coastal processes of erosion and transportation.

• Currents are large-scale and persistent movements of water in the ocean. It is largely driven by prevailing winds which can either be horizontal or vertical. An example is the longshore current that flows parallel to the coast. It is formed by waves that approach the coast at an angle. This current can transport an entire section of a sandy beach several kilometres down the coast within a short period.

2. Briefly describe how the following factors will affect wave energy:
(a) Speed of wind
The greater the wind speed, the greater the wind energy.
(b) Duration of wind
The longer the wind blows, the larger the waves and the greater the energy.
(c) Fetch The greater the fetch, the greater the wave energy.

3. Describe what happens to the motion of water on the surface when wind blows across an open sea.
• When the wind blows over the surface of the water, waves are formed. • Waves move in a series of circular loop-like motions.
• As waves move through deep water, little energy is lost.
• As waves approach the coast, the water becomes shallower.
• Friction with the sea floor surface slows down the wave movement.
• This frictional force causes the waves to heighten and bend forward.
• As they continue to move forward, they collapse onto the beach, into foaming water.
• The forward movement of the waves up the shore is called swash.
• Earth's gravity pulls the waves back to the sea; this movement is called backwash.

4. Explain the conditions that promote the following coastal processes: erosion, transportation and depostition.

Erosion
• Presence of high energy destructive waves.
• Coastal rocks with numerous joints, cracks and lines of weaknesses which will allow the rocks to be eroded and broken down more quickly. Soft rocks such as shale and clay erode much faster than harder rocks like granite or basalt.
• Rocks with soluble minerals will erode easily as their soluble minerals are constantly reacting chemically with the sea water.
• More open and exposed coasts are more vulnerable to erosion than those sheltered from prevailing winds.

Transportation
• Direction of prevailing wind.

Deposition
• Abundant supply of sediments.
• Gentle sloping beaches which disperse wave energy due to the friction with the shore, along with the weak gravitational pull on the waves, this result in constructive waves as the swash is stronger than that of the backwash. Thus, sediments are deposited.
• Sheltered coasts with indented coastlines and calm conditions also allow deposition to take place.

5. Describe three factors that affect the rate of coastal erosion.

(a) Type of waves
Destructive waves have more energy than constructive waves, thus more materials are eroded than deposited.
(b) Structure and composition of coastal rocks
Rocks with more lines of weaknesses will be eroded more rapidly. Soft rocks like shale and clay are eroded faster than hard rocks like granite and basalt. Rocks with soluble minerals like limestone will react chemically with the sea water, causing the rocks to disintegrate as they weaken and break down rocks.
(c) Position of the coast
Coasts that are protected from prevailing winds and wave action naturally by coral reefs, mangroves or by man made structures will experience less erosion than those that are left open and exposed.

6. Explain how coastal erosion, transportation and deposition occur.
• Coastal erosion occurs through four processes:
(a) Hydraulic action
- The sheer force and direct impact of the breaking waves exerts great pressure as it pounds onto the cliff face.
- Water enters the lines of weaknesses present in the rock and the air present in the cracks is being compressed further.
- The pressure from the compressed air then widens the cracks.
- Over time, this compression and outward push of the air pockets may cause the cracks to be enlarged and break down the rocks.
(b) Abrasion
- It is caused by the constant impact of the materials like rocks and boulders scraping against the coast.
- These materials are carried by the destructive waves that are able to lift them up from the sea bed and hurl them against the coast.
(c) Attrition
- It occurs when particles that are being carried by the waves rub and hit against each other, thus breaking down into smaller particles in the process.
- Over time, these particles are eroded to develop smooth and rounded surfaces.
(d) Solution
- It occurs when waves react chemically with the soluble minerals present in the rocks, like limestone.
- The minerals are being dissolved, forming a chemical solution.

• Transportation
(a) Longshore drift is one of the important ways in which waves transport materials along a coast.
- When waves approach the coast at an angle, the swash carries the material in the water up the beach at an oblique angle.
- The backwash then carries the materials perpendicularly down the beach due to the pull of gravity.
- This results in a zigzag movement of the materials along the beach.
- The direction of the longshore drift is affected by the wind direction. For example, when the wind is blowing from a southeast direction, the direction of the longshore drift will be from east to west.

• Deposition along the coast is dependent on the following factors:
(a) Supply of sediment
- Most sediment is transported down the coast by rivers.
- Some sediment is products of coastal erosion, and some is deposited onto the coast by the waves.
- When the wave energy drops, the waves can no longer carry their load of sediment, thus deposition takes place.
(b) Gradient of slope
- On gentle slopes, the wave energy is spread out and reduced due to friction with the shore forming constructive waves.
- The strong swash brings materials up and deposits them onto the beach.

(c) Position of the coast
- Along coasts that are sheltered from strong winds, such as indented coastlines and
riverine inlets, destructive waves are not common.
- The calm coastal conditions allow deposition to take place.
- Sandy beaches are common in protected bays.

7. Explain the formation of
(a) A cliff
(b) A wave-cut platform
(c) Headlands and bays
(d) A beach
(e) A spit and a tombolo

a) A cliff
• A cliff is a steep rock face and is formed when a coast is eroded.
• When waves undercut a steep rock coast, hydraulic action and abrasion weaken the lines of weaknesses present on the rock surface, forming a notch at the base of the cliff. • This notch continues to be further eroded and deepened to form a cave.
• Further undercutting will eventually cause the roof of the cave to collapse.
• As the process continues, an overhanging cliff is formed.
• In time, this overhanging cliff will collapse and the materials will be deposited at the foot of the cliff.
• A steep rock face called a cliff is formed.

(b) A wave-cut platform
• A wave-cut platform is a gently-sloping platform formed at the base of a cliff.
• When waves undercut a steep rock coast, hydraulic action and abrasion weaken the lines of weaknesses present on the rock surface, forming a notch at the base of the cliff. • This notch continues to be further eroded and deepened to form a cave.
• Further undercutting will eventually cause the roof of the cave to collapse.
• As the process continues, an overhanging cliff is formed.
• In time, this overhanging cliff will collapse and the materials will be deposited at the foot of the cliff.
• A steep rock face called a cliff is formed.
• Continuous erosion causes the cliff to retreat inland. Over time, a wave-cut platform is formed at the foot of the cliff.

c) Headlands and bays
• A headland is made of resistant rocks which extend outwards into the sea and it is formed due to differential erosion of coastal rocks.
• A bay is made of less resistant rocks which remain after erosion has taken place on coastal rocks.
• Headlands and bays are formed along coasts that have alternate strips of resistant hard rocks and less resistant soft rocks arranged at right angles to the coast.
• The less resistant soft rocks are eroded faster than the resistant rocks.
• The result is the formation of an indented coast with the remaining hard rocks forming headlands extending into the sea and soft rocks forming bays.

(d) A beach
• A beach is a zone of deposition along the coast.
• It is formed when materials carried by the waves, tides and currents are deposited on gentle slopes where constructive waves allow materials to be deposited by the strong swash.
• Beaches are formed at protected bays along an indented coast as a result of wave refraction
• Due to wave refraction, waves approach the shallow sea in front of the headland first before they reach the adjacent bays.
• As wave energy tends to concentrate and strike at the headlands rather than the bays, erosion takes place at the protruding headlands.
• Along the bays, waves are diverged and so their energy is spread out and weakened. Deposition of sediment thus takes place along the bays, and over time, sandy beaches are formed.
• Beaches usually consist of sandy materials although they can be formed from broken coral pieces, pebbles and blackish volcanic sand.
• Usually the wind and waves will sort out the materials on the beach with the finer materials being deposited nearer to the sea and the coarser materials deposited further inland.• Beach materials are continually moved along by process of longshore drift according to the wind direction.

Longshore drift:
· The swash and backwash push and drag materials up and down the beach.
· When the waves approach the coast obliquely, they move up the beach at an angle and carry the materials up the beach.
· However, the backwash will drag the materials down the beach at a right angle due to gravitational pull.
· The swash from the next breaker will transport obliquely some of the materials up the beach again and the process is repeated.
· The movement of the particles along the beach in a zig-zag manner is called longshore drift.

(e) A spit and a tombolo
• Spits and tombolos are formed by longshore drift.
• When there is a change in the direction of the coastline, the longshore drift will continue to transport the materials in the original direction to the sea.
• The materials are deposited as they enter the water. Over time, these materials accumulate above the water, and a spit is formed.
• The spit continues to grow as materials are continuously deposited.
• The spit eventually joins a nearby island to the mainland, forming a tombolo.

8. Briefly describe the difference between "hard engineering approaches" and "soft engineering approach”.
Hard engineering approach" or "structural approach" refers to the construction of physical structures to defend against the erosive power of the waves.
"Soft engineering approach" or "non-structural approach" refers to coastal protection focusing on planning and management so that coastal areas and properties are not damaged by coastal erosion. It involves minimal human interference allowing nature to take its course.

9. Describe the different hard engineering measures of coastal protection.

(a) Building seawalls
Seawalls are structures that are built along the coast to absorb energy of incoming waves before they erode away loose materials on the beach. They may be built of concrete, rocks or wood. However, it is a costly method to build and maintain.

(b) Building breakwaters
They are built with either one end attached to the coast or away from the coast. Similar to seawalls, they are able to absorb the energy of incoming waves before they reach shore. When constructed offshore, they can create a zone of calm water behind them.

(c) Building groynes
Groynes are built are right angles to the shore to prevent longshore drift. They are able to absorb or reduce the energy of the waves and cause materials to be deposited on the side of the groyne facing the longshore drift. However, erosion can still take place on the part of the coast which is not protected by the groynes.

(d) Building gabions
Gabions are usually wire cages filled with crushed rocks which are piled up along the shore to prevent of reduce coastal erosion by weakening the wave energy. However, this is a short term protection method which lasts between five to ten years, as wire cages require regular maintenance due to constant exposure to sea water resulting in corrosion or damaged by excessive trampling and vandalism. Also, if they are not properly maintained, these wire baskets become unsightly and hazardous on the beach.

10. Describe the different soft engineering measures of coastal protection.
(a) Beach nourishment
It is the constant replenishment of large quantities of sand to the beach system. As the beach
extends seawards, it leads to an improvement of both beach quality and storm protection. However, it is very expensive to constantly transport large quantities of sand to fill up the beach as sand is continuously being eroded and transported away by the waves and winds. This could have serious consequences for the wildlife living within the coastal environment.
Moreover, with a limited supply of sand available, this method may not be practical in the long run.

(b) Relocation of property
Coastal planners are trying to protect man-made structures such as buildings by relocating them and letting nature reclaim the beach in its own time. Relocation of buildings and other properties and restricting construction at vulnerable sites will help to save the coast and prevent the loss of lives and properties. This is extremely important especially when faced with the future threat of rising sea-levels due to global warming.

(c) Planting of mangroves
Mangroves, with their long, curved roots that prop up from the soil help to trap sediments and reduce coastal erosion. The prop roots are constantly looking for new anchorage and are able to secure and trap enough sediment to form small islands. As mangrove communities grow and expand seawards, they also help to extend coastal land seawards.

(d) Stabilising dunes
Coastal dunes can be found along the shore where there is large supply of sand and strong winds. The winds carry and deposit the sand on the coast further inland. Gradually, the sand piles up to form coastal dunes which help to defend the coast from the sea. Dunes are so fragile that delicate shrubs struggle to hold them in place. To prevent the dunes from being disturbed by human traffic, access points to the beach should be controlled and designated.
Shrubs and trees can also be planted to stabilise the dunes, as the roots of trees can reach downwards to tap the groundwater and thereby anchor the sand in the process.

(e) Growth of coral reefs
Natural coral reefs help to slow down wave energy, however, when coral reefs are destroyed due to processes of land reclamation and water pollution, the waves move towards the shore at full force and erode away the beaches. Natural coral reefs should be conserved and protected while damaged reefs ought to be restored. Artificial reefs can also be created along the coast by placing environmentally friendly and durable materials such as steel or concrete on the sea-floor. They can also help to enhance fishing opportunities and serve as undersea barriers to reduce the impact of wave energy.

11. With reference to examples, explain why soft engineering approaches of coastal protection may be more effective than hard engineering approaches of protection.
Soft engineering approaches are more effective because they improve the quality of the coastal areas in the long run and bring about benefits; also, they are aesthetically more pleasing than the unsightly physical structures of hard engineering approaches.
• Using the beach nourishment method, the beach is extended seawards which leads to the improvement of both beach quality and storm protection. Stabilised sand dunes also encourage the growth of other living organism in addition to coastal protection. Established mangrove communities trap sediments to form islands so that they can grow and expand seawards increasing its coastal protection ability.
• Conserving natural coral reefs can help to reduce the impact of wave energy. Coral reefs can also be artificially created by placing environmentally friendly and durable materials such as steel or concrete on the sea-floor. This not only serves as undersea barriers to reduce wave erosion, it also enhances fishing opportunities when living organism begins to grow on it.
• Relocation of at-risk buildings and other properties and restricting construction at vulnerable sites will help to save the coast and prevent the loss of lives and properties. This is extremely important especially when faced with the future threat of rising sea-levels due to global warming.

Hard engineering approaches, on the other hand, are not as effective because:
• They only protect the areas they have been constructed for, while other parts of the coast are still exposed to erosion. Hence, making them less effective than soft engineering methods.
• Structures constructed are not only expensive to build, but these structures need to be maintained regularly so they can continue to provide coastal protection as they are subjected to strong waves constantly. For instance, gabions can only last for five to ten years and damaged gabions can be dangerous when they are tampered with.

Notes on River Studies

2009-10-20T01:44:00.005+08:00

1. Briefly describe how a river is formed.
• A river begins with many channels which join up to form a stream.
• It is a part of the hydrologic cycle where different types of precipitation can contribute to the water flowing in its channel.
• Rain and snow are two types of precipitation which fall directly into the river.
• Some of the precipitation falling onto the Earth's surface is intercepted by vegetation, while some infiltrates into the ground.
• It then flows slowly downwards as `groundwater', collecting in soil spaces forming layers of saturated soil or sand.
• When the soil on the surface can no longer absorb anymore rainwater, the excess water will flow over the land as surface runoff.
• The surface runoff, together with the slow moving groundwater contributes to the formation of a river.

2. Describe what comprises a river system.
• It refers to the main river with tributaries of different lengths and sizes.
• The source of the river system usually begins in the mountains, and may have several sources.
• It flows over different land surfaces before ending at the mouth of the river e.g. at a lake or sea.

3. What is the difference between a drainage basin and a watershed?
• A drainage basin refers to an area drained by a river system.
• A watershed (or the drainage divide) is to the stretch of land that forms the boundary of a drainage basin which separates it from another drainage basin. It is usually located along the crests of hills or mountain ridges.
4. Which conditions will cause a river's flow to be large and fast?
A large and fast river is one which has:
• High rainfall (greater volume of flow - greater river discharge)
• Long duration of rainfall (greater volume of flow - greater river discharge)
• Large drainage basin (greater number of tributaries — greater volume of flow — greater river discharge)
• Small amount of vegetation (less interception — more runoff — greater river discharge)
• Impermeable soil (less infiltration into ground — more surface runoff — greater river discharge) • Steep gradient (river flows faster)
• Small wetted perimeter (less friction — less loss of river's energy)
• Smooth bed and bank texture (less friction — less loss of river's energy)

5. Explain how river discharge affects the energy of a river.
River discharge refers to the volume of water that flows through a point along the river channel within a given time. Therefore, an increase in river discharge increases a river's energy, which is stored energy.

6. Explain how the speed of flow affects the energy of a river.
Gravitational pull transforms the stored energy of a river into kinetic energy, changing its speed of flow as a river flows downstream. An increase in speed of flow will increase a river's energy.

7. Describe the ways in which the river processes are carried out.
Erosion
• Wearing down of the banks, river bed and the removal of eroded materials by the action of gravity and flowing water.
• Vertical erosion results in the deepening of a river channel.
• Lateral erosion causes the river channel to widen.
• Occurs in all three courses
- Upper course is dominated by vertical erosion where volume of flow is small but at a greater speed.
- In the middle course, erosion increases as the river discharge increases when it moves downstream. With fewer big obstructing boulders, its speed slows down.
- Lower course is dominated by lateral erosion as it experiences the largest amount of discharge.
• Four Erosional processes
- Hydraulic action is a process by which loose materials are pushed away and rocks in a river are broken down by the sheer force of water.
- Abrasion is a process by which the load carried by a river grinds against the bed and banks of the river, it is also known as corrasion.
- Attrition is a process by which rock fragments carried in a river rub and knock against each other.
- Solution is a process by which river water dissolves or reacts with the soluble minerals in rocks. It is also known as corrosion.

Transportation
• It is a process whereby eroded materials are carried by moving water down the river course.
• Occurs throughout the three courses.
• Load refers to the materials transported by river.
• Amount of load carried increases progressively towards the river mouth.
• Size of sediments transported decreases from upper to lower course.
• The distance the load is transported depends on the size of particles, the speed of flow and volume of flow.
• Four transportation processes
- Traction is a process whereby large boulders roll or slide along the river bed
- Saltation is a process whereby larger particles in a river bounce and hop along the river bed.
- Suspension is a process whereby flowing water transports insoluble fine particles such as clay and silt in a river while keeping them afloat.
- Solution is a process whereby soluble minerals from rocks such as limestone are carried in the river and transported downstream. In tropical areas with dense vegetation cover, dissolved minerals and organic acids from decayed vegetation are often transported by the river, resulting in the river water becoming brackish.

Deposition
• Occurs when the volume of flow is reduced and/or the speed of flow is decreased.
• Also occurs when the river no longer has enough energy to carry its load e.g. in convex banks of a meandering river or when it flows into a course with gentle gradient.
• Coarser and heavier loads are deposited first followed by finer materials, including dissolved materials. These finer materials are usually deposited at the mouth of the river e.g. the sea or lake.
• It is more prominent in lower course where the speed of flow is slow and the load is at its maximum.

8. Using well-labelled diagrams, explain the formation of the following erosional landforms:
(a) Valleys and gorges
(b) Waterfalls
(a)
• Valleys and gorges are usually found in upper course where vertical erosion is prominent.
• In the upper course, the volume of flow is small but the gradient is steep.
• The swift flowing water exerts a powerful force on the river bed eroding, forming a steep V-shaped valley through the processes of hydraulic action, abrasion and sometimes solution.
• A gorge is an exceptionally deep and narrow valley (Fig 3.14) and it is formed when the river erodes vertically through resistant rocks leaving very steep valley walls.

(b) Waterfalls are found in the upper course of a river when the gradient of a river bed drops suddenly, the water plunges down from a great height to form a waterfall.
There are two ways a waterfall can form.
- When a river flows over rocks with unequal resistance, the less resistant rocks downstream will get eroded much faster than the resistant layer
• Processes of erosion like hydraulic action, abrasion and solution break down the less resistant rock.
• Over time, this results in a sudden change in gradient and causes the water to plunge.
• As water plunges and hits the bottom of the waterfall, the force of plunging water together with the swirling rocks erode the river bed to form a plunge pool.• An example is Iguazu Falls, at the border of Argentina and Brazil. - By faulting
• During faulting, rocks are uplifted, causing a displacement of rocks where one rock is higher than another.
• When a river flows across an area where faulting has occurred, the gradient of the river bed drops suddenly and a waterfall is formed.
• An example is Victoria Falls along the Zambezi River.

9. With reference to examples, explain the formation of the following landforms:
(a) Floodplains and levees
(b) Deltas
(c) Meanders and oxbow lakes
(a)Floodplains and levees are found in the lower course of a river.
• After a heavy downpour, the volume of flow in a river may increase drastically and the river may no longer be able to hold this sudden increase in volume. The water overflows its banks and a flood occurs.
• As a river overflows its banks, the speed of flow is reduced and it begins to deposit its load especially when the flood starts to subside.
• With its energy reduced, the river deposits the heavier and coarser materials first usually on its immediate banks while the finer and lighter materials e.g. clay and silt are carried further away from the banks before they are deposited.
• Over a series of floods, sediments are deposited layer upon layer forming a flood— Floodplain of River Wyre, England.
• The accumulation of coarser materials on the banks of the river helps to raise the banks higher than the flood plain forming natural embankments called levees.

(b)Deltas are found at river mouths, e.g. Mississippi Delta, USA, Nile Delta, Egypt and Mekong Delta, Vietnam
• When a river enters a body of water e.g. a lake or sea, its velocity is reduced.
• This results in a decrease in energy and deposition takes place.
• Sand is deposited close to the shore while fine silt and clay are carried further out before being deposited.
• Over a period of time, layers of sediments will build up and eventually form an extensive platform of river sediment called a delta at the river mouth.
• Conditions suitable for delta formation include:
- The river must carry sufficient amount of load when entering the sea.
- Weak tidal currents along the coast so that the sediments are not washed out to sea or pushed along the coast much faster than the river can deposit it.
- Shallow coast to ensure that the sediments will not be dispersed into the sea before it is deposited.
• As the river flows over a delta, the deposited sediment may become an obstacle to the path of the river forcing the river to split into several streams to find its way round the obstruction. These streams are called distributaries.

(c) Meanders are formed when a river twists and turns forming hoop-like bends in the river.
• They are most prominent in the lower course but they can be found anywhere along the course of a river.
• In the upper course, a river does not meander because at this stage, the river has little volume and thus little energy so the river bends and turns to avoid obstacles and find the easiest route down the slope.
• In the middle course, where the gradient has become less steep, the river starts to slow down and the river begins to meander, eroding the concave bank by undercutting it and depositing materials on its convex bank where the speed of flow is slow and weak.·
As the water moves downstream and around a bend, it moves in a spiral fashion.
The surface water moves across towards the concave bank and then moves downwards. It then emerges further down along the convex bank.
Thus erosion tends to occur along concave bank and deposition along convex bank.
The concave bank may be eroded to form a steep slope called river cliff.
The deposition of materials on the convex bank results in the formation of a slip-off slope.

Oxbow lake
• In the lower course, erosion and deposition continue on the concave and convex banks respectively and the meanders become more pronounced. Soon a narrow meander neck is formed.
• Eventually the river breaks through the neck and flows through a straight channel. The meander is gradually cut off from the channel forming an oxbow lake.

10. Evaluate the effectiveness of the following river channel management strategies:
(a) River channelisation
(b) River re-sectioning
(c) Vegetation planting and clearance
(d) Bank protection

Re-alignment:
· Refers to the straightening of the river channel
· Method removes meanders and reduces the length of the river channel in order to increase the speed of the river.
· This resulted in the river being able to flow away from the region faster and washes away sediments which have accumulated on the river bed, localized flooding is thus minimized.
· The deepening of the river channel allows the river bed to hold more water and thus reducing the occurrence of flood.

Re-sectioning:
· Refers to the widening and deepening of the river channel, sides of the river bed is also smoothened by replacing soil of the river bed and banks with cement and granite.
· Increases the river’s ability to hold more water, thus reduces the occurrence of flood.
· Re-sectioning also increases the amount of surface run-off from the surrounding areas into the river as more surface runoff can enter the river without causing the place to flood.
· The smoothening of river bed and back by the use of cement and granite reduces the friction between water and the river banks. This increases the speed of the river and hence allowing water to flow away more quickly.

Evaluation of re-alignment and re-sectioning:
· The increased in the speed of river upstream results in an increased in the volume of water downstream. River channel may not be able to hold the excess volume of water resulting in overflowing channel and hence flooding downstream. It helps to reduce immediate problems of flooding; however the issue of flooding is merely being transferred from one site to another.
· The increased in the speed of the river resulted in increased energy of the river; sediments which were normally deposited on river beds are hence washed off downstream or into the sea or ocean.
· This increased in sediments in the ocean will affect marine life such as seagrasses as there is less sunlight passing reaching the seabed.
· The lining or rivers banks with concrete will also result in the loss of plants and animals as their habitats are destroyed.
· River management strategies will also lead to the loss of wetlands, as with river re-alignment, the shortening of the river course results in the shrinking of wetlands as rivers flows through a smaller area now.

Vegetation planting and clearance
· It is a useful strategy as vegetation helps to slow down the flow of water
· Roots of the vegetation bind the soils and stabilise the river banks.
· It is an effective strategy in the long term and it improves the stability of channel.
· However the weight of trees could cause river banks to collapse and vegetation can contribute to 'accumulation of wood debris in river and thus deflect water flow, accelerate bank erosion, slow down the flow and encourage flooding.

Evaluation of vegetation and clearance:
· This seems to be a more effective way to manage river channels, even though the presence of vegetation could hinder the flow of water.
· Proper maintenance of such vegetation would improve the stability of river channels.
· It is a cheaper and more preferable measure compared to the construction of artificial structures and incurring high cost due to the need to alter the natural course of the river.

Bank protection
· It involves the building of artificial levees, dykes or embankments to prevent river banks from collapsing during heavy rains when volume of rainwater increases tremendously.
· It is an effective strategy in the short term.
· However it is ineffective in the long term.
· It requires a lot of resources (e.g. funds) and manpower.
· It is also aesthetically unappealing.
· The building of defence along one stretch will lead to increased erosion in other parts of the river.

Evaluation of bank protection:
· It is an effective short term measure, but its effectiveness in the long term is doubtful.
· Often, the building of defences along one stretch of the river will lead to an increased erosion rate on other parts of the river.
· Such measures will require high costs in building and maintenance of these structures, which will also interfere with the river's natural course and are considered to be aesthetically unappealing.

Notes on Natural Vegetation

2009-10-20T01:35:00.005+08:00

1. With reference to examples, describe:
(a) The distribution of tropical rainforests
(b) The diversity of plant species in tropical rainforests
(a) The distribution of tropical rainforests
• Spreads like a green belt around the Earth.
• Found between the Equator and 10° to 20° North and South of the Equator.
• Examples include Amazon basin in South America and Congo basin in Africa.
(b) The diversity of plant species in tropical rainforests
• High biodiversity.
• Over 400 species per hectare.
• Mostly hardwoods such as Meranti, Mahogany, Seraya, Ebony and Balsa.

2. Describe the structure of a tropical rainforest.
The top canopy is between 30 – 50 m in height. The tee trunk is straight and has buttress roots. The middle layer is between 10 – 30 m. The canopy is almost continuous and many creepers and ferns can be found in this layer. The undergrowth is very sparse. The ground is always damp and dark with very little sunlight. The trees are evergreen and had many different types of species.

3. Explain how trees in tropical rainforests adapt to the hot and wet environment.
• Tropical environment refers to areas with high annual temperatures and rainfall with no dry season.
• This encourages high growth rate in natural vegetation and high decomposition of fallen leaves and branches.
• Leathery leaves with drip tips allow excess water to flow off easily.
• Trees are tall (more than 40 m) to compete for sunlight.
• Roots are shallow as they do not need to grow deep into soils to get water and minerals. • Buttress roots to support the tall trees.
• Fruits and flowers are colourful and sweet smelling to attract agents of pollination

4. With reference to examples, describe
(a) The distribution of mangrove forests.
(b) The diversity of plant species in a mangrove forests.
(a) They are found along tropical and subtropical coastal areas. Usually found along low-lying, sheltered coats with muddy and waterlogged land such as in Australia, Southeast Asia and West Africa.
(b) They have fewer species than tropical rainforests. The dominant species are generally those that have breathing roots or prop roots to enable them to survive in water logged environments. Examples include the red mangrove and white mangrove.

5. Describe the structure of a mangrove forest.
The trees can grow to a height of 2m to 40m. There are horizontal zones of mangrove species - saltwater mangrove trees grow near the coast but freshwater mangrove trees grow further inland
fewer species as as not many plants can adapt to saline water and oxygen deficient
soil. The four main species which are known as halophytes are Avicennia, Sonneratia, Rhizophora, Bruguiera.

6. Explain how trees in mangrove forests adapt to tropical and waterlogged environment.
• The leathery leaves with drip tips allow water to flow off easily.
• Some have special salt glands to prevent the build up of excess salt.
• The excess salt is excluded by the roots and stored in the older leaves and discarded when the leaves wither and fall off.
• The trees have prop roots to help them anchor into the muddy ground.
• Others have aerial roots to take in oxygen from the atmosphere directly.
• The fruits of the tree are tube-like and they start to germinate while they are still on the tree.
• They have pointed ends to anchor them to the mud when they fall into the ground so that they will not be washed away by the tides before they can take root.

7. With reference to examples, describe the distribution of tropical monsoon forests.
They are found mainly in areas from latitude 15° to just beyond the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. It is dominant in areas which experience the tropical monsoon climate, as Bangladesh, Thailand and regions such as the southern part of China.

8. Describe the structure of a tropical monsoon.
The forest has three layers: the top canopy layer consists of trees with height varying from 25m to 35m. There are lianas and epiphytes on the trees. The second layer is made up of shorter trees of about 15m tall and the third layer is the dense undergrowth of shrubs and herbs. It is less dense than the tropical rainforest.

9. Explain how trees in the tropical monsoon forest adapt to the tropical monsoon climate.
• They have fewer species than the tropical rainforest due to the dry season.
• The trees are spaced further apart and are shorter due to the lower amount of rainfall received.
• The more scattered forest results in the development of thicker undergrowth.
• They have similar Ieaves like the tropical rainforest to help drain off the excess water during the wet season.
• These deciduous trees shed their leaves during the dry season to prevent excess water loss
• They have deep roots to enable them to tap the underground water during the dry month.

10. With reference to examples, describe the distribution of temperate coniferous forests.
They are found mainly between latitudes 40° and 65° and mostly in the northern hemiisphere namely in North America, in a wide belt across Canada, Siberia, northern Europe and n~ region of Asia.

11. With reference to the climate, explain the diversity of species in a temperate coniferous forest
• The climate has a relative short growing season so there are very few species coniferous type of vegetation.
• Sometimes an entire forest may have only one or two species.
• The species are mainly softwood such as spruce, pine, cedar and fir.

12. Explain how trees in temperate coniferous forests adapt to the temperate environment.
• The trees are cone-shaped and have compact, down-sloping and springy branches which allow the snow to slide off easily without breaking the branches.
• The leaves are needle-like to reduce the loss of moisture due to the low rainfall. The leaves are also drought-resistant and can store water for the long cold winter when the ground is frozen.
• The trees have thick barks to protect them from the severe winter winds and summer fires.
• The fruits are contained in cones which protect them from the long harsh winter.
• Coniferous trees have shallow roots to help the trees absorb water from the melting of the top soils.

13. Describe the positive impact of forests on the environment.
• Forests are important catchment areas.
The water, soils and trees in catchment areas are renewable resources. The quality and quantity of the water in the lakes and rivers depend on the size and quality of the catchment areas.
• Forests are also important in controlling flooding in the lowlands. They intercept the rainfall and decrease the amount of surface runoff.

14. Describe the social and economic benefits a forest has on a country and its people.
• Economic benefits: timber (hardwood) is used to manufacture a variety of timber-related products. The timber trade is estimated to be worth more than US$200 billion a year. Softwoods are also used for housing, construction, furniture, flooring and production of paper.
• Social benefits: Forests are popular for outdoor activities and relaxation such as camping, fishing hiking and gaming. In less developed countries, timber is often used as fuel for keeping warm and cooking.
• Forests also produce other equally valuable products such as medicinal and cosmetic products. The cinchona plant is used to produce quinine, a medication for malaria.

15. With reference to a named location,
(a) Explain five causes of deforestation in a tropical rainforest.
(b) Describe three problems caused by deforestation.

(a) Explain five causes of deforestation in a tropical rainforest.
• Settlements: The need to build settlements for the large population. For example, Brazil is trying to resettle people from densely populated cities such as Rio de Janeiro to less densely populated parts of the country. Similarly, a transmigration policy in Indonesia resettles poor and landless Indonesians from densely populated islands such as Java and Bali to less populated islands such as Kalimantan and Sulawesi.
• Rapid Urbanisation: Rapid urbanisation requires large tracts of land to be opened up for development of infrastructure such as transport system, e.g. the Transamazonian highway across the Amazon forest. Forested lands are also cleared for building of housing, schools and many other facilities.
• Agriculture: In Brazil, farming has resulted in large-scale damage to the Amazon forest. Commercial farming, cattle ranching alone accounts for 80 per cent of the deforestation of the Amazon forest. Commercial crops such as sugar cane, coffee and more recently soya beans are grown on land once occupied by the rainforest. The collective actions of subsistence farmers have also brought much damage to the forest. These farmers are poor and they could not keep up the productivity of the land given to them by the government. Once the land is not fertile, they will go deeper into the forest to open up more lands.
• Forest Fires: Forest fires burn up thousands of square kilometres of Amazon forest every year. These fires can be started by natural or human causes. The situation is worsened when forest land is also burnt to create farmlands.
• Economic Development and Debt Repayment: Countries like Brazil need to reduce its huge national debt. As a result, Brazil needs to exploit its natural resources to pay off its debt. The world demand for forest products such as tropical hardwoods is worth US$8 billion a year. Therefore extensive commercial logging and over logging, both legal and illegal, are difficult to control in Brazil as it is a form of lucrative business. The forest is also rich in minerals. Another problematic area is the mining for oil. Over the years the mining for oil has enabled Manaus to become a city and an industrial centre. The need for cheap fuel such as hydroelectric power has seen huge areas of rainforests destroyed such as the building of the Itaipu Dam on the Parana River which has flooded and destroyed 700 sq km of rainforest.

(b) Describe three problems caused by deforestation.
• Global Warming: As forests such as the Amazon forest helps to significantly absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen into the atmosphere, the removal of trees can affect the atmospheric conditions. Deforestation can result in an increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere as less is absorbed by plants which will lead to global warming.
• Soil Deterioration: Trees help to improve the soil fertility by absorbing nutrients into the roots before these nutrients are dissolved and removed from the soil by water flowing downwards. When the trees die, they decompose and the nutrients are released back into the soils. However, deforestation takes away this storage mechanism. Thus, the topsoil is no longer protected and causes increased soil erosion to take place.
• Floods and Water Quality: When land is cleared, interception of rainfall by the trees is reduced and surface runoff increases. This will lead to flooding in the lower areas. Furthermore, the topsoil together with its decomposed materials washed off by the runoff is deposited on the river beds. Thus affecting the quality of the river water as these decomposed materials may decrease the pH level and change the living environment of the aquatic life.
• Air Pollution: Forest fires have created haze and smoke clouds which have caused airports to close and have also affected many people with respiratory illness. An example is the 1997 haze caused by the forest fires in Sumatra and Kalimantan which affected countries like Singapore and Malaysia.
• Loss of Biodiversity: Deforestation has also led to the extinction of flora and fauna, many of which have yet to be discovered. Their destruction and eventual extinction will cause a reduction in biodiversity in the long run and lessen the chances of survival of the other living organisms.
• Impact on Inhabitants: Deforestation also disrupts the culture and lifestyle of the many tribes that live in the forest. As these groups are forced to resettle in the cities, their culture, knowledge and way of life will be lost. Many of them, like the Kayapo, can no longer survive by living in the forest.

16. "The effects of deforestation are mostly environmental." Do you agree? Explain your answer.
No.
Economically, the survival of shifting cultivators, hunters and gatherers will be greatly affected as they are heavily dependent on the forest for their farmlands.
Socially, deforestation has also taken away land needed for recreation and relaxation.
Educationally, humans have lost a huge laboratory to discover and do their studies on flora and fauna that have yet to be discovered.

17. With reference to examples, discuss the effectiveness of measures taken by a government to manage a tropical rainforest.
Governments have tried to promote sustainable management of the forest. This will allow the use of the forest and its resources in a way and at a rate that maintains the biodiversity, vitality and regenerative capacity of the forest.

They have done this through the following measures:
• Selective cutting: This allows the cutting of only selected single or groups of trees that have met a certain criteria. For example, only trees of a certain minimum circumference can be cut and only a certain number of trees per hectare of forest can be harvested. However, this measure requires strict law enforcement and often, it is difficult to carry out such enforcement.
• Establishment of laws and policies: Some governments have issued clearing permits and established measures against illegal loggings. In 1988, the Brazilian government withdrew its financial support and tax incentives in order to limit the clearing of forest for new cattle ranches. However, illegal logging remains a problem, accounting for 80 per cent of logging activities because of weak enforcement and corruption
• Agro-forestry: Agro-forestry is another measure to help reduce deforestation by growing trees in farms. For example, in 2005, Brazilian cedar and mahogany were grown on almost 10 000 hectares of land near Manaus. However, such a project requires a lot of capital and can only be undertaken by big companies and with government support. There is also a long period of waiting for the trees to mature before harvesting.
• Conservation: Efforts have also been made to set aside forest lands as reserves. Currently, only 4 per cent of the Amazon rainforest is protected as environmental reserves. Another 20 per cent has been set aside as tribal reserves. This is only effective if the tribal groups such as the Amazonian Indians do not sell off the land to commercial investors looking to exploit the forest.

18. Explain why it is difficult to put into practice conservation of the Amazon Basin?
The Amazon Basin is shared by many countries , such as Brazil, Venezuela, Peru, Columbia and Ecuador, and each has vested interest in conserving the Basin. It is difficult to come together to decide on a single plan to conserve the forest.
Many of the countries need to export timber to exchange for much needed revenue for the development of the countries. To stop or reduce the rate of deforestation would mean less revenue and economically, these countries would suffer.
Secondly, there is also a high demand for timber products from many developed countries. Therefore, to satisfy world wide consumer demand for timber, more forest are being destroyed.
Thirdly, in many developing countries where timber industry is important, the government authorities are usually not effective in implementing and enforcing strict rules and regulations to prevent the clearing of the forests indiscriminately. In many cases, there is widespread corruption among government officials which prevent the government from carrying out the laws effectively.
Fourthly, with increasing population, there is increasing demand for land for residential, industrial and agricultural development. As a country becomes more developed, infrastructure such as highways and bridges need to be built in order to improve accessibility among settlements.
Lastly, the practice of selective cutting which can help to minimise damages to flora and fauna in a forest is more costly to be implemented as compared to clear cutting. Hence most timber companies practice clear cutting as it is far more convenient and less costly.

Case study of deforestation in Kalimantan:
Deforestation in Kalimantan
• Rapid rate of deforestation for the last 25 years.
• Between 2000 and 2002, deforestation rose to 12 000 square kilometres a year in Kalimantan.
• The rapid deforestation is brought about by human activities like agriculture, mining and logging.

Causes of Deforestation in Kalimantan

Agricultural landuse
• One cause of deforestation in Kalimantan is the increase in demand for land due to increase in agricultural activities.
• More people was moved from Kalimantan to ease overcrowded area like Java and Sumatra.
• There was also a demand of landuse from plantation companies especially for the planting of oil palms.

Growth of settlements
· As population increases in Kalimantan, more land is cleared for housing.
· More people are moving to urban settlement such as towns and cities to live and work.
· This expansion is known as urbanisation.
· Balikpapan in East Kalimantan is an example of a town that is affected by urbanisation.

Improved transport networks
· Transport networks like road and railways are constructed to link settlements in Kalimantan.
· The transport network allow access to previously remote forested areas in Kalimantan.
· This has made it easier for people to destroy more areas of the rainforest.

Growth of Industries
o Heavy logging has resulted in West Kalimantan
· loosing an average of 1 656 square kilometers of forest each year.
Mining companies has caused loose soil to wash away into a nearby river. Use of chemicals has led to the poisoning of animals.

Forest fires
· Forest fires caused the destruction of 23 750 square kilometres of rainforest in Kalimantan between 1997 and 1998.
· Vegetation debris such as tree stumps, branches, twigs and leaves catch fire easily during the dry season, causing forest fires.

Problems caused by deforestation
Loss in biomass
§ The Earth’s biomass refers to the combined weight of all organisms which is measured in terms of kilocalories of stored energy.
§ The reduction of biomass in Kalimantan reduces its ability to support plant and animal life.

Loss of biodiversity
· The Kalimantan rainforests are home to more than 380 bird species and 10 000 plant species.
· Due to deforestation, the biodiversity of plants and animals are reduced which leads to extinction of species.
· Question: Give an example of an endangered animal from the Kalimantan forest.

Changes in the nutrient cycle
· The removal of vegetation following deforestation results in the loss of leaf litter and affects the nutrient cycle.
· Soils are leached due to the absence of roots.
· Absorption of rainwater is reduced , the soil becomes infertile and cannot support vegetation.

Changes in quantity of water
· When trees are removed, less transpiration takes place.
· Cloud formation is reduced and there is low rainfall.
· Flood could also be triggered by deforestation.

Changes in quality of water
o When rainforests are cleared, soil is eroded and is washed away easily by rain into nearby rivers.
o This increases the sediment level of the rivers and makes the water muddy.
o The sediment changes the pH level, making the water acidic.
· Question: What happens to aquatic life when the water becomes acidic?

Air pollution
§ Huge forest fires cause dust and smoke to be suspended in the air. This results in haze.
§ Haze can cause people to suffer from health problems.
§ It will indirectly affects the tourism industry.

Managing the Rainforets in Kalimantan
· The Ministry of Forestry(MOF) - MOF issues licences to timber companies and monitor their activities.
· Community involvement - MOF involves local people such as local governments, native people and villagers.
· Sustainable management -refers to the careful use of resources, such as forests to allow people to continue using the resources in future.

Four Main Policies of MOF
Afforestation and reforestation
o Afforestation - afforestation refers to the planting of trees on areas that were not covered with forests.
o Effectiveness, success and limitations of measures - significant restorations of forests have been made possible. rates of which forests are restored are slower than rates at which they are cleared.

Controlled logging
· Controlled logging - controlled logging involves careful management of forests that are being logged.
· Effectiveness, success and limitations of measures - selective cutting minimises soil erosion. However it is difficult to monitor logging and detect illegal logging activities. A significant variety of plant species could be damaged in the process.
Conservation
§ Conservation refers to the careful use of resources to protect forests from destruction. For example forests could be set aside as nature reserves.
§ Effectiveness, success and limitations of measures - Betung Kerihun Nature Reserve is the largest reserve in West Kalimantan. However Illegal logging activities are difficult to monitor.

Controlling forest fires
· Forest fires - Indonesian government has implemented a policy that makes it illegal to clear forests by burning. Campaigns to discourage the local people from using fire to clear forests for farmland.
· Effectiveness, success and limitations of measures - some plantation companies continue to burn forests because it is the cheapest way to clear land.

Our Role in Forest Conservation
• Simple actions such as making use of both sides of a piece of paper can help to reduce wastage of forest resources.
• To help reduce deforestation in other countries, we can buy furniture made of timber from sustainably managed forests.

Notes on Map Reading

2009-10-20T00:50:00.002+08:00

Grid reference

1. Always remember to read from the bottom left corner.

2. If the question ask for the four-figure grid reference or grid square of a particular building, e.g. the Hindu temple shown in Fig 1. Read the number for the easting first (from the X axis) and then the northings (from the Y axis). E.g example in Fig.1 is located in 2672

3. If the question ask for the six-figure grid reference or grid square of a particular building, e.g. the Hindu temple shown in Fig 2. Start by finding the grid square with the feature, then divide the grid square into 10 equal parts along both the northings and eastings. Place a ruler onto the bottom left corner of the feature, e.g. the Hindu temple is located at 266727. Read the number for the easting first (from the X axis) and then the northings (from the Y axis).

Direction

To measure the direction of one point to another, draw a straight line connecting them.

Read the question carefully– if the question ask you the direction of B from A, then draw a + sign at A and read the direction from A.

Bearing

Draw a straight line connecting the 2 points.

Draw a + sign at where you are taking the bearing from.
Place the protractor at the + sign with 0° facing north and then read the bearings from the point starting from 0° (north) clockwise as shown in Fig.4.

Height
The height of a place above sea level can also be indicated by the contour lines.
Contours are imaginary lines connecting areas of the same height above sea level on a map.
The contour lines can be used to show the relief of a place such as whether the slope is gentle or steep. The spacing of the contours indicate the steepness of a slope – the closer the contours the steeper the slope and vice versa.

a) valley – associated with rivers, tend to be V-shaped and narrow in the upper course, broader in the lower course
b) plateau – elevated land with flat top and steep sides
c) escarpment – continuous line of steep slope at the edge of a ridge or plateau.

Guide to describing relief
Give the average height ( or the range of height) of the relief of the area and state the height of the highest point.

Describe the relief of the area:
(a) state whether it is mountainous or hilly or whether it is part of a plateau. Point out and describe any relief feature that stands out in the area and state its location on the map.
(b) Describe the slopes in the area. States whether they are concave. Convex, uniform, steep or gently sloping.

Example of how you can describe relief:
The height of the area ranges from below 10 metres near to the coast to 548 metres in grid square 8483.
The main relief feature is T Mountain which is in the western part of the area. As the mountain extends to the south-east, it becomes narrower and its height decreases. This part of the mountain has two peaks of heights about 240 metres in grid square 8582 and about 110 metres in grid square 8682. This part of the mountain also has two spurs from grid square 8583 to 8683 extending from south-west to north-east.
The contours of T Mountain are very close together in the area west of easting 85. This indicates that the slopes are steep. The spacing of the contours on the eastern side of the mountain is wider. The slopes here are therefore less steep.

Steps taken to measure gradient
Identify the two points which the measurement is taken from and the height above sea level for the two points. You can either refer to the spot heights, the bench marks or the contour lines.
Calculate the height difference (vertical distance) of the two points.
Convert the height to the same unit of measurement as for horizontal distance if necessary e.g. 3.048 feet = 1metre
Measure the distance of the 2 points on the map. Convert to actual distance by referring to the line scale or using the map scale ie. 1: 50,000 means 1 cm on the map represents 500m in actual distance.
Gradient is expressed in ratio form – vertical distance: horizontal distance ie. 1: 30 - which means for every 1 metre increase in vertical distance, there is an increase of 30 metres in horizontal distance.

River Studies

Describing River
a) drainage pattern ie – dendritic, trellis or radial
b) area drained – many tributaries joining the main river etc
c) direction of flow- the river flows from a higher ground to lower ground or towards the sea.
d) Course of river – ie. Straight or meandering, braiding, width
e) Presence of river features e.g rapids, waterfall

Drainage pattern
The drainage pattern of river is determined by the relief and the geological features of the land over which the river flows.

Drainage density

Refers to the number of streams on the land surface. The greater the number, the higher the density. Drainage density is highest in areas with impermeable rock of fine texture and heavy rainfall.

River valley
Wide valley floor as indicated by the widely spaced contour lines which increases in value away from both banks of the river.
V-shaped valley with steep slopes – indicated by closely packed contour lines which increases in value away from both banks of the river,
Flat valley floor as indicated by the absence of contour lines immediate to both banks of the river.

Evidence of water supply
Reservoir
Pump house
Pipeline

Settlement Pattern

a) Dispersed – houses far apart – areas with low economic development e.g. normadic herding, smallholdings
b) Linear – arranged in a line, usually along a mode of transport ( rail, road) or waterway (river, coast) to take advantage of the accessibility and resources.
c) Nucleated – concentration of buildings or houses – usually at road junctions or centers of economic activities ( e.g. community or village with facilities like school and shops)

Choice of site for the location of airport, plantation, settlement etc.
Availability of large area of flat land, ability to expand, very accessible e.g. near to rail or roads, availability of services or resources – remember to look closely at the map symbols on the map and refer to the legend of the map.

E.g. of question on Geography of food
Describe the type of food production in the map area and explain the importance of the roads to it.
The main food production is the growing of sugar-cane to be made into sugar as shown by the presence of large area under sugar plantation and the presence of sugar mill. The roads are important for the transportation of sugar-cane other settlements for refining or for sale. It also allows workers to be transported from their homes to the plantations and back.

E.g of question on development:
A new agricultural training centre is to be set up at either X or Y. Which site do you support and why?
An agricultural training centre is likely to provide training for farmers, both locally and within the country, as well as be engaged in research and development.
Y is the better site because:
• it is surrounded by agricultural areas — permanent cultivation (all around except to the south and southwest), a chicken farm (to the northwest), some coconut plantations (to the southwest) — these farmers are likely to be keen to undergo training.
• it is a growing town with a larger population compared to X, so it should not be difficult to get students for training.
• It is accessible by road to X and other parts of the country e.g. Z — major road, secondary roads.
• The town has all the necessary services and facilities to support its set up — bank (capital investment), telecommunications (links to other parts of the country), medical facilities and other services (supporting services).
• There is available land on the outskirts of the town for the centre but not to the east of the town, where there are swamps and the river and streams may overflow and flood the area.

Alternative energy resources

2009-10-15T13:45:00.000+08:00

World Watch on Channel News Asia 15 Oct 2009

Just saw this report on TV – in Iceland, all the electricity is generated from renewable energy resources. 80% of the electricity is generated from hydro sources - rivers and glaciers and the other 20% from geothermal source. Geothermal sources are also used to heat houses and warm the roads so that it is snow free in winter. I am truly impressed that a country can be fully dependent on renewable natural resources to produce adequate energy supply for the country.

As countries developed, the need for energy resources has increased and there is a real urgency in looking at alternative energy resources. In Brazil most of the cars run on biofuel - ethanol produced from sugar cane. We are also looking into producing biofuel from palm oil. Of course there are still controversies in the use of biofuel as an alternative as its production takes up agricultural land which could have otherwise used for food production.

World Hunger

2009-10-14T22:24:00.001+08:00

Read about the rise in world hunger on the Straits Times 14 Oct 09 -http://www.straitstimes.com/Breaking%2BNews/World/Story/STIStory_442139.html

The number of undernourished people started climbing in 1995, reaching 1.02 billion this year under the combined effect of high food prices and the global financial meltdown, the agency said. The figure topped the 1 billion mark in June, and was 963 million a year ago.

Why more hungry people?
· Soaring prices for food staples in 2007 and 2008 forced poor families to sell their meagre assets and cut down on meals, health and education spending. Although the inflated prices - which caused riots across the globe last year - have stabilised, they remain comparatively high, especially in the developing world.

· World economic crisis is increasing unemployment, reducing remittances that immigrants send back home and making it difficult for poor countries to get credit lines to buy food on the market.

· Thirty countries now require emergency food assistance, including 20 in Africa. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) announced in June that the number of hungry people had reached 1 billion, or one in six of the world's population. The world's most populous region, Asia and the Pacific, has the largest number of hungry people - 642 million - followed by Sub-Saharan Africa with 265 million.

What should be done?
· More investments will be needed to fulfil pledges like the UN Millennium Development Goals, which aim to halve of the number of those living in hunger and poverty by 2015. In July, Group of Eight summit in L'Aquila, Italy agreed to raise US$20 billion (S$28 billion) to help farmers in poor countries produce more - a shift from previous emphasis on delivering food aid.

· FAO, which will host a world food summit next month, says global food output will have to increase by 70 per cent to feed a projected population of 9.1 billion in 2050. To achieve that, poor countries will need US$44 billion yearly of aid to agriculture, compared with the current $7.9 billion, to increase access to irrigation systems, modern machinery, as well as to build roads and train farmers.

Intensifying food production

2009-10-05T19:34:00.001+08:00

I was discussing the above topic with my colleague today and can't help but recall the time I brought a group of students to Tanjung Karang in 2004 - a piece of land reclaimed for rice cultivation near to KL, Malaysia.

Much of the production here is a result of government intervention, from reclaiming the land, setting up the irrigation system, providing loans to the farmers, setting up of cooperatives which loan out the combine harvestor as well as selling seeds to the farmers and the gurantee of minimum price for the padi.

Tg Karang Padi Field
40% of the land is reclaimed from peat swamp. Harvesting is done using the combine harvestor which can be loaned from the co-operatives at 40 Ringgits. By tapping on the water from River Tengi and River Bernam, water is available all year round and double cropping is possible. Each individual plot of land is around 1.2 hectares. The water had been drained away from the field through PVC pipes connected to the canal a month before harvesting - that's why we are not wet even though we are standing right in the middle of the field! Sluice gate controls the flow of water into the irrigation system in the rice field. You can see houses for Owl as owls are used as the biological control of pests in the rice fields. nd used for rice production.
.

We also went to the rice mill to see how the rice is processed. Mr Hashan and Mr Rosli from the mill explained how the rice is processed in the mill. The moisture content of the rice grain is checked before they are processed and then the husk is separated from the grains. The rice grains are then polished and stored in the huge Silos.

After removing the husk, the brown rice is polished. The powder (bran) is sold as animal feed. The rice grains are further polished and graded before packaging.

The husk are incinerated to ash- which can be used as fertilizers.

Mother nature's fury - are we safe from it?

2009-10-03T14:42:00.000+08:00

Felt the tremor on the 30th Sept 2009 and was shocked at the extent of the earthquake as I am just living on the 6th floor. I realised that it was a 7.6 earthquake from Padang, Indonesia.

One cannot help but think about how natural disasters might affect Singapore. I suddenly recalled the following article on natural disaster - a special edition for Earth Day written by Keith Emuang:

MOTHER NATURE'S FURY
Singapore's geographical location has spared us from many natural disasters. In this special Earth Day (March 20) report, we ask why is this so? By KEITH EMUANG.

Living on an island, it is only natural for us to occasionally wonder how susceptible we are to natural occurring events like earthquakes, tsunamis and rising sea levels. Factors such as the lack of open spaces and highlands, and high density and high-rise dwelling, also fuel our concern.
The good news is that, based on recorded history, Singapore in a geological sense, has been spared from earthquakes and tsunamis. That is however, not to say that we are totally safe or completely free from any type of natural or climatic conditions.

EARTHQUAKE POSSIBILITY?

Studying an earthquake in the hope of anticipating one, involves the tedious seismological monitoring of complex tectonic plate behaviour. Presently though, even with sophisticated scientific land-based and satellite equipment, geologists remain unable to pinpoint the time, place and magnitude of an impending earthquake.

Singapore's susceptibility to an earthquake depends on the characteristics of the outermost layer of the earth's crust (lithosphere). This rigid layer is composed of sections called plates that are in constant motion, gliding on the top of the softer rock below. When two plates come together or collide, there is a tremendous stress and strain where they meet, and a boundary is formed. If the stress exceeds the elasticity threshold of the rocks, the plates can rupture, releasing an enormous amount of strain energy (an earthquake).

The subsequent release of seismic waves, heat and sound energy depicts the magnitude or strength of the earthquake. The area above and around this release of energy is usually most affected by the quake. If a landmass is above or near the boundary, tremors will be felt and if the quake is large enough and below water, a tsunami develops.

Fortunately Singapore does not lie on, along or in close proximity to any boundary. We are sandwiched by the Java trench in the west and south, and the Philippine Plate and trench in the east. We lie on the southerly extension of the Eurasian Plate, in what geologistsrefer to as a seismically stable zone, i.e. free from earthquakes.

According to the National Environment Agency (NEA), past data indicates that we have not suffered an earthquake nor been severely affected from any that have occurred in the region. And although tremors have been occasionally felt by high-rise dwellers in specific areas in Singapore, they are fairly weak. Associate Professor of Geography, National University of Singapore, Victor Savage, qualifies,"Although we are fairly safe, we have to recognise that many times, whenever there is a significant earthquake or volcanic eruption in Sumatra, we have felt the underground tremors in some parts of Singapore. This shows that we are not totally safe or removed from the tectonic instability that takes place in Sumatra."
In the interest of the public, the Meteorological Services Division of the NEA has set up a network of seismic sensors around the island to monitor the effects of these earthquakes from western Sumatra. The data is made available to engineers and researchers, while the general public can access this information whenever a tremor incident occurs on the island.

TSUNAMI LIKELIHOOD?
The 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami is one example of what can happen, in a regional sense, should the Indo-Australian and Burma (part of the larger Eurasian Plate) Plates meet. The boundary between these plates had slipped below sea level and the ensuing earthquake 'kicked up' or displaced hundreds of cubic kilometres of water. This generated a massive sea surge or tsunami, which in this particular instance, fanned out across the Indian Ocean.

As is the case with most tsunamis, the up to 700km/h wave speeds drops considerably before reaching coastlines. However, the size and height of the wave can swell enormously upon hitting land. The surging seas can inundate or flood coastal areas and communities lining the ocean, not unlike how the waters of the Indian Ocean had wrecked havoc across many countries sharing its waters.

The Boxing Day killer tsunami had lost much of its energy by the time it reached our shores. The main thrust of these waves was absorbed by the Sumatran landmass. So, in order to reach Singapore, it had to travel down the bottleneck that is the Malacca Straits. That took much of the sting out of the approaching waves. If a similar-type tsunami were to be triggered by an earthquake due to any boundary along the Indo-Australia Plate, we would be protected in a similar way.

The NEA feels that earthquakes in the region are most likely to occur along major fault lines off the outer coasts of Sumatra, Java and the Philippines. Being sheltered by the Indonesia Archipelago in the west and south and the Philippines in the east, it is very unlikely for Singapore to be directly affected by a tsunami.

Associate Professor Savage adds, "The South China Sea is nowhere as deep as the waters in the Indian or PacificOceans. Thus any tsunami generated from violent undersea disturbances such as massive earthquakes, volcanic eruptions or sub-marine landslides from the eastern areas of the region e.g. the Philippines and Japan, is unlikely to achieve great wave speeds or heights. Therefore any impact on Singapore is likely to be diffused, moderated and less damaging.

Backing this theory, former Geography Professor and author, Ooi Jin Bee, wrote in his article Earthquakes: Will They Hit Singapore? "The Krakatoa volcanic eruption of 1883, for example, generated a tsunami 40 metres high which penetrated 11km inland and totally or partially destroyed over 300 settlements along the Sumatran and Java coasts. Its effect on Singapore was, however, negligible.

HAZARDS THAT HIT HOME
Although we are fairly safe, we have to recognise that many times, whenever there is a significant earthquake or volcanic eruption in Sumatra, we have felt the underground tremors in some parts of Singapore.

We can only hope that our geographical location continues to offer us a haven from natural disasters. Also, we cannot afford to slip too deep into our comfort zone because there are still some climatic hazards, perhaps not as catastrophic but nonetheless, events we need to be aware of.

Few of us need reminding how bush fires in Singapore can seriously affect the air conditions here. During the hot season in Jan-Feb this year, it was reported at one stage that as many as six fires a day were breaking out across the island. Air quality was affected in many parts as a result of that. Smoky haze can also come about from forest fires in Sumatra or spewing volcanic ash such as Mount Pinatubo's cataclysmic eruption in 1991. Depending on their intensities and the direction of the winds, Singapore can be affected.

As recently as 1997, the Pollution Standard Index (PSI) had hit an all-time high of 226 (a reading above 100 being unhealthy). Then, raging Sumatran forest fires were to blame and it also proved what a public and health nuisance it can be.

Rising global temperatures due to an accumulation of greenhouse gases tends to worsen the problem. In the past 10 years, our planet has experienced the warmest climate on record with some of the hottest occurring between 1998 and 2004. Dry seasons become hotter and inevitably, the bush fires will increase in response.

These increasing global temperatures have also triggered the meltdown of our ice caps and the gradual peeling away of huge glaciers from the Arctic and Antarctic, thus raising the mean sea level. Experts belief that by 2100, there would be an estimated rise of between 10cm and 90cm in global sea levels.

Associate Professor Wong PohPoh, Department of Geography, National University of Singapore says, "The scientific community at large acknowledges that over the last 200 years, man has contributed much to the climate change or the phenomenon of global warming due mainly to the burning of fossil fuels.

While the impact of a sea level rise on Singapore is unlikely to be severe, areas with low-lying coasts can nonetheless be affected to some extent.

Professor Wong whose area of expertise lies in coasts and beaches, recounts an instance in December 1999 of how extreme high tides moved inland over the East CoastPark (near the Costa Sands Resort). "The seawater flooded the walkways in the front of the resort and stood up to the level of the stone benches and dustbins. Although this is merely a short-term event, it provides a good analogy for what might happen in the long term. This really shows our vulnerability.

MONSOON MAYHEM
As we are also prone to spells of incessant monsoon rains, flooding can and has been a problem. Granted that much has been and continues to be done to drain the heavy rains and waters from high tides, some parts of the island still remain prone to flooding. We only have to look back to as recently as March last year to realise what three days of persistent rains can still cause.

To alleviate the flooding problem, the Public Utilities Board has embarked on an ambitious project to build a barrage across the 350m-wide Marina Channel. This barrage will act as a tidal barrier to keep high tides at bay and also prevent low-lying areas in the city from flooding, especially when heavy rains coincide with high tides.

When completed in 2007, this will also dam up the MarinaBasin to create a reservoir that will turn seawater to freshwater and add to our water supply.

The close proximity to the Equator has provided Singapore with a tropical climate. However, the characteristic hot and humid weather conditions promote the development of lightning-producing thunderclouds. Based on figures posted on the NEA's website, Singapore experiences an average of 171 thunderstorm days annually. The lightning activity is also high. In fact, Singapore is one of the most lightning prone areas in the world.

Although most times lightning strikes the ground harmlessly, its destructive power is enormous. It can ignite forest fires, destroy trees, damage electronic equipment and disrupt electrical power and telecommunication systems. It is also a hazard to humans.

Most lightning deaths in Singapore occur in the months of April and November, coinciding with the heaviest thunderstorm months. The victims were often in open areas such as the sea, beaches or football fields. For deaths in sheltered areas, victims were often found under a hut, a shed or tree.

Between 2000-2003, lightning fatalities in Singapore averaged 0.35 deaths per million population. The authorities have done a lot to ensure that buildings, highways and other critical infrastructure, is protected from lightning strikes. The rest really depends on the precautions one takes, and Mother Nature.

ABOUT EARTH DAY
Singapore will be observing Earth Day on March 20.
The first Earth Day was officially observed in San Francisco on March 21 1970. The day was chosen to coincide with the Vernal Equinox, the moment when night and day are equal throughout the Earth.

This was symbolic and helped to remind of the Earth's wondrous system of balance, one that mankind is responsible for partially disrupting. It serves as a reminder for us to work to restore it.

Today, Earth Day is observed across the world in a variety of ways including events such as Car-Free Day, Tree-Planting Day, Beach Clean-Up Day, etc. It is a day to celebrate the wonders of our planet and re-instil the important need to care for and protect our natural environment not only for the present generation to enjoy but also for many generations to come.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS
* Vernal Equinox - spring Equinox around March 20
* Tectonic - the earth's crust and what happens within it
* Seismic - earthquakes and other vibrations of the earth
* Submarine landslides - underwater landslides
* Glaciers - slow moving rivers of compacted ice coming down mountains

GO GREEN TO CELEBRATE EARTH DAY
The upcoming International Earth Day offers us the opportunity to kick-start our weakened resolve and commitment towards the 'Green Revolution'.
Recycling and conservation are powerful tools mankind can employ to arrest the indecent rate at which we are stripping Earth of her resources. In Singapore, some doubt what a small nation like ours can do. And even those who are willing, sometimes find things that seem to work against their 'green' endeavours.

Hougang resident Clara Heng says "There used to be special wire bins for cans, paper and plastic products in my neighbourhood. My family would religiously do our bit twice a week. Then after six months, for some reason, the bins were taken away."

Mr Tan EkLeng, a Tampines resident says "People would throw anything in the bins. It was utterly discouraging." But Mr Tan feels that with sustained public education, people will get into the swing of things.

Alicia Raj, a 22-year old private student from Bedok encountered problems with recycling. She says "How are we supposed to dispose of old newspapers when some garang-gunis don't accept them these days? They only want old televisions, radios and computers! Many people I know want to be environmentally friendly but they always hit a snag and are forced to dispose of recyclable materials improperly." Ms Raj is aware of recycling bins near the Bedok Central area but without a car, it is too inconvenient for her family members to take a feeder bus to dispose of their recyclables.

SMALL ROLE, BIG IMPACTThe combined efforts of individuals and the community can do a lot to upkeep the planet's wellbeing. Experts say all that really needs to be done is for everyone to take care of their immediate surroundings, manage their lifestyles along environmentally-friendly lines and get children actively involved.

The cumulative effect of simple tasks like cutting down electricity and water usage, consuming food in environmentally friendly packages and walking over short distances instead of driving will have a big impact on the environment.

Buy green products, especially detergents, soaps and cosmetics, and be on the look out for products that make use of recycled materials. You might also consider doing your marketing using a carrier or basket to save on the number of non-biodegradable plastic bags that you end up taking home.

At the end of the day, it's really a matter of how serious and committed we are in ensuring that our world will thrive. Temperamental as Mother Nature may be, she is the guardian to our beloved planet.

Population

2009-10-03T14:31:00.000+08:00

POPULATION
dieoff.org/page27.htmA good summary page on overpopulation.

A Collection of sites on the One Child Policy of China.http://www.npg.org/forums/2nd_wall_of_china.htm http://acker.cwrl.utexas.edu/~bill/306/pennington/onechild.html http://www.idsnet.org/papers/98%20Essays/Abbott/abbott.html http://www.earlham.edu/~pols/globalprobs/population/onechild.html
Benefitshttp://www.africa2000.com/INDX/china1109.html http://www.earlham.edu/~pols/globalprobs/population/chinaresource.html
Problemshttp://www.hhs.se/eijs/anomaly/COneKid.htm http://www.theage.com.au/daily/981018/news/news3.html http://www.newaus.com.au/asia10.html http://village.ios.com/~grok/kinship.html http://www.idsnet.org/papers/98%20Essays/Abbott/abbott.html http://www.earlham.edu/~pols/globalprobs/population/ethics.html http://acc6.its.brooklyn.cuny.edu/~phalsall/texts/c-wnhol.html http://www.usembassy-china.org.cn/english/sandt/fertl21.htm

WEBSITES ON MIGRATION
Calcutta
http://www.albany.edu/gp/Faculty_Staff/cjsmith/calcutta.htmlSome terms to help you get started.
http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~rossm/Issue2/rob/migration.htm
http://www.bengalweb.com/calcutta/history/history2.htmRead from World War 2 onwards.
http://www.unchs.org/uef/cities/summary/calcutta.htm

Bangkok
http://www.undp.org/popin/fao/faomod/mod4.html
http://www.worldbank.org/html/extdr/offrep/eap/social/crobb1.html
http://www.unfpa.org/swp/1996/CH496.HTM

Southern Africa
http://www.queensu.ca/samp/migdocs/speech5.htm
http://www.africapolicy.org/docs97/samp9702.htm
http://www.iss.co.za/Pubs/ASR/6.3/Klotz.html

Indonesia
http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/oed/oeddoclib.nsf/e295f16eb661097785256885007ba550/4b8b0e01445d8351852567f5005d87b8?OpenDocument
http://www.deplu.go.id/english/trans.htm

Sub Sahelian Africa
http://www.worldbank.org/afr/findings/english/find78.htm
http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80918e/80918E0u.htmRead the conclusion.

Emigrating from India
http://www.acdi-cida.gc.ca/xpress/dex/dex9805.htmRead for the points as the case study is different.
http://www.uohyd.ernet.in/fin.htmPertaining to the US but still usable.

Geography of Food

2009-10-03T14:25:00.001+08:00

WET RICE CULTIVATION
Websites on wet rice cultivation:http://www.riceweb.org
Factors affecting agriculture http://www.cgiar.org/

GREEN REVOLUTION
http://www.arches.uga.edu/~wparks/ppt/green/index.htm

MARKET GARDENING
Oh Chin Huat Farm http://web.singnet.com.sg/~ohfarms/ http://www.cityfarmer.org/aeroponics.html#aeroponics http://www.agric.gov.ab.ca/agdex/200/5083001.html -- for a general overview

GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOODS
http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/contentlookup.cfm?SiteKeyParam=GMFOODS1 http://special.northernlight.com/gmfoods/

Native species in BTNR may be wiped out by acid rain

2009-09-23T02:28:00.001+08:00

Singapore’s Geothermal Energy Potential

2009-08-21T19:39:00.000+08:00

Read about this from an advertisment for a seminar and was surprised to learn that we actually can tap on geothermal energy in Singapore!

There are 3 geothermal hot springs and a possible steam seep in Singapore. A new Hydrogeology model predicts that ground water in the centre of Singapore island sinks up to 4 km depth along joints and faults and is heated by the ≈200 million year old Bukit Tima Granite. Artesian hot spring exit near Sembawang and on Pulau Tekong and are hot enough (≈70°C) to commercially generate electricity using new technology binary cycle power plants at SGD ≈0.07 per kWh, comparable with imported natural gas and cheaper than important oil. However, to generate geothermal electricity even more efficiently, ≈2 kilometre deep L-shaped cold water injector and steam production boreholes are required to intercept hotter (>140°C) temperatures. Electricity generated in this way would be green, clean, and renewable. Proof of concept might cost 25 – 30 million. A viable 50mWe geothermal power station could power for 50,000 homes, pay for itself in 5 years and save 0.5m barrels of oil/yr.

Speaker – Dr Grahame Oliver, SE Asia Petroleum Exploration Society Senior Visiting Fellow in the Department of Geography at NUS

Map Reading

2009-07-31T13:41:00.002+08:00

Map Reading interactive:
3D simulations on creating topographical maps - must see!

Click here to download Google Earth
Find how to get to your destination by bus, taxi or drive in Singapore
Find out how to get around by bus in Singapore street maps of Singapore
Maps in Singapore

Map Resources- courtesy of Dr Hobart King from Mansfield University, Pennsylvania:
The first is a collection of 350 U.S. state maps which include a raised relief map, elevation map, rivers map, political map and roads/cities map- state and city satellite images, waterfalls map, state high points map and more. http://geology.com/state-map/
160 country maps paired with Landsat images. http://geology.com/world/

enchanted learning http://www.enchantedlearning.com/geography/mapreading/index.shtml

World Maps http://www.worldmapper.org/

Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve

2009-02-07T23:47:00.001+08:00

Photos which I took of Sungei Buloh in Singapore - a unique mangrove habitat.
Mud lobster mounds, migratory birds, water monitor lizard, mudskippers, snake, crabs climbing up the tree as the water level rises, the SBWR exhibition centre, learning how to use the data logger with the pda - testing salinity, PH value, Relative Humidity, Temperature etc, collecting water sample, sketch of boardwalk, attap seed tree

Trees submerged in the water - Bird eye view from the tower.

Brugeria with the knee-like aerial roots.

Avicennia with its pencil-like aerial roots.

Rhizophora with its stilt roots

You can refer to S-cool notes on natural vegetation

Coastal

2009-02-07T23:33:00.001+08:00

S-cool notes on Coasts

Animation of how groyne can prevent coastal erosion
Animation of longshore drift
Animated coastal processes
Formation of baymouth bar and spit

Rivers

2009-02-07T19:40:00.001+08:00

I have updated this entry with pictures which I took of the Serangoon River near to Serangoon Secondary School on 25 Feb 2009. Check out the bank protection and the natural vegetation available on the opposite bank. There seems to be some development work in progress as you can see some machinery at work in the far distance. Will the soil from the barren land be washed into the river?

Sungei Serangoon is 8 km long, starting as a canal near Tampines Road. It flows through Hougang, where it is joined by tributary Sungei Pinang just before Sengkang. After that it flows towards Lorong Halus where it is joined by another tributary Sungei Blukar, before emptying into the Serangoon Harbour. The river is also known as the Serangoon Estuary.

The stretch of the river which I took below has a 2.2 km jogging track which is known as the Serangoon Park Connector running along its western bank. Although this stretch is close to residential areas, a variety of garden, grassland and estuarine birds can still be found there. Sections of the river have been canalized at Hougang and Lorong Halus. Plans are underway to dam up the estuary of Sungei Serangoon to form a reservoir, to be ready by 2009 as reported on wikipedia.

Photos which I took of the Singapore River and the Marina Barrage on 5 Feb 2009. Look at the efforts to protect the banks as well as ensuring that the river is cleaned. Refer to Wikipedia for more information on the Singapore River.
Bank protection with walls made of granite.
Bridge across the river
Pubs and restuarants along the river banks
River taxis which provide river cruise for tourists.

Will the growth of the tree roots into the artificial embankments affect the river?

Cleaning up the river

More workers cleaning up the river. Cleaning up the river Photo 2.

Cleaning up the river Photo 3.

The Marina Barrage facing the sea

How the Marina Barrage works.

Benefits of the barrage

Scool on rivers

Bite-size Geography from BBC

Rivers Animation:

Energy of river

Animation on river transport

animation of river transport 2

Animation on formation of delta and floodplains

Video on delta

Animation of meander and ox bow lake

Animation on the formation of potholes, rapid, waterfalls and gorges

Animated river resources

News Articles:

Barrage across Marina

Three Gorges Dam

Climate change and importance of coastal protection

2008-09-27T16:06:00.001+08:00

Click on the link to read the blog on climate change and development:
http://blog.openmedicine.ca/node/107

Something which I would like to highlight:
One example of adaptation is what the Vietnam Red Cross (VNRC) has done. In Vietnam’s northern coastal provinces, the VNRC has financed the planting of 12,000 hectares of mangrove trees to break the waves typically associated with tropical typhoons and to act as a buffer to 110 kilometers of sea dyke. While US$ 1.1 million was spent on the program, the benefits have proved to be greater than the costs as dyke maintenance have been reduced by US$ 7.3 million each year.12 While building better infrastructure to protect human settlements is necessary, it is impossible to protect all cities, coastlines and farm land with physical structures. Ultimately the best solution to climate change is to prevent it from happening in the first place.

I hope that you can also relate this to the topic of coastal protection - Soft engineering such as tree planting or mangrove conservation do help to complement hard engineering such as the building of dykes.

Flood Management

2008-09-21T21:48:00.001+08:00

Read the following summary from BBC:
Flood management
Steps can be taken to manage flooding. Often these involve trying to lengthen the amount of time it takes for water to reach the river channel, thereby increasing the lag time. Flood management techniques can be divided into hard and soft engineering options.
'Hard' options tend to be more expensive and have a greater impact on the river and the surrounding landscape. 'Soft' options are more ecologically sensitive. The tables summarise the main flood management techniques.

Hard engineering options:

Dam construction
Dams are often built along the course of a river in order to control the amount of discharge. Water is held back by the dam and released in a controlled way. This controls flooding.
Water is usually stored in a reservoir behind the dam. This water can then be used to generate hydroelectric power or for recreation purposes.
Building a dam can be very expensive, and sediment is often trapped behind the wall of the dam, leading to erosion further downstream. Settlements and agricultural land may be lost when the river valley is flooded to form a reservoir.

River engineering
The river channel may be widened or deepened allowing it to carry more water. A river channel may be straightened so that water can travel faster along the course.
The channel course of the river can also be altered, diverting floodwaters away from settlements.
Altering the river channel may lead to a greater risk of flooding downstream, as the water is carried there faster.

Soft engineering options:

Afforestation
Trees are planted near to the river. This means greater interception of rainwater and lower river discharge.
This is a relatively low cost option, which enhances the environmental quality of the drainage basin.

Managed flooding (also called ecological flooding)
The river is allowed to flood naturally in places, to prevent flooding in other areas - for example, near settlements.

Planning
Local authorities and the national government introduce policies to control urban development close to or on the floodplain. This reduces the chance of flooding and the risk of damage to property.
There can be resistance to development restrictions in areas where there is a shortage of housing.
Enforcing planning regulations and controls may be harder in LEDCs.

Views on flood management techniques
Governments and developers often favour large hard engineering options, such as dam building. Building a dam and a reservoir can generate income. Profits can be made from generating electric or leisure revenue.
Environmental groups and local residents often prefer softer options, such as planting trees. This causes little damage to the environment and does not involve the resettlement of communities.

Parenthood Package 2008

2008-09-04T23:30:00.000+08:00

From the today newspaper - compare the first cartoon on the parenthood package implemented wef 17 August (the cartoon was published on 4th Sept on Today) and the views on those surveyed on marriage and parenthood in July 2008. Do you think the new marriage and parenthood package would help to bring up the birth rate?

GM Food

2008-08-04T23:55:00.001+08:00

How do you feel about GM food? Would you consume meat which is cloned as shown in the news article from my paper below?

Read this article from the Straits Times to learn more about GM food:

June 21, 2006 GM food facts

What are GMOs?
Genetically modified (GM) organisms are plants or animals that have had one or a few selected genes introduced into them through genetic engineering techniques. Examples include potatoes and corn that are resistant to insects and soya beans that are resistant to certain types of herbicide.

What's the difference between GM and conventional breeding?
Conventional breeding, also known as selective breeding, is an inexact science, and involves the random transfer of thousands of genes.
Genetic modification is generally faster and more specific than traditional breeding methods. It can also overcome natural barriers that limited breeders in the past. For example, cross-breeding of a plant with a bacterium was impossible, but GM techniques allow bacteria DNA to be inserted into a crop, to make it resistant to the pest.

Are there GM foods on the market?
Yes. These come mainly from maize, soya bean and canola and can also be found in ingredients in refined products such as corn syrup.

Are they safe?
There are no scientific studies to date that show that GM foods are dangerous. All GMO foods here are certified safe from their countries of origin. The authorities also perform stringent checks on importers of GM foods.

Are GM foods more nutritious?
They are generally equivalent to conventional food products in terms of nutritional value.
Whole foods like grains, fruits and vegetables can be modified to contain more vitamins, proteins or even less fat, but none are being sold commercially so far.

Is there any way to tell if a food product is GM?
Not for shoppers here, because products are not labelled as such. Consumers who wish to avoid GM foods can opt for organic foods or foods with the 'non-GMO' label, says the Agri-Food and Veterinary Authority (AVA).

- TANIA TAN

Blue Revolution

2008-08-04T23:42:00.001+08:00

In the 1960s, India made headlines with its Green Revolution, using high-yielding varieties and improved technology to more than double its output of wheat between 1965 and 1972.
Today, India is pushing ahead with a Blue Revolution, the rapid increase of fish production in small ponds and water bodies, a boon to small farmers, the nation's nutrition and its gross domestic product.

source: http://72.14.205.104/search?q=cache:-lXRS3rZY_oJ:www.fao.org/NEWS/1998/980802-e.htm+blue+revolution+green&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1&gl=us

Do you know that we that we are also doing research on aquaculture in Singapore too? Read the article below:

S'pore's very own super sea bass Oct 5, 2007 Straits Times

Hatched in AVA's research tanks, the fast-growing, hardy fry were fattened on an offshore farm in Riau By Tania Tan

JURONG Fishery Port was abuzz with activity yesterday as Singapore's first half-tonne shipment of 'super sea bass' arrived from Indonesia. Hatched in the research tanks of the Agri-Food and Veterinary Authority's (AVA) Marine Aquaculture Centre (MAC) on St John's Island, the fast-growing fry were fattened for harvest on an offshore farm in Riau. With a survival rate of up to 80 per cent, MAC's fry are twice as hardy as wild fry, and able to grow up to 15 per cent faster, reaching market size - about 500g - in under six months. Yesterday's inaugural load is the first of many, said the AVA, as the successful harvest will help boost the Republic's future fish stocks - translating into a sustainable and affordable supply of quality fish. The entire shipment of live sea bass was snapped up even before the fish was netted out of the sea - at a wholesale price of about $7 per kg, comparable to current market prices, said the AVA.

To help widen the supply net, 400,000 of the specially bred fry have been supplied to the Riau farm since last year. The farm is expected to produce up to 100 tonnes of fresh fish monthly, for the next two years - or close to 7 per cent of all sea bass eaten here. At the same time, another 400,000 fry have been supplied to fish farms here, which have been already selling the adult sea bass to the local market over the past six months. A large-scale marine farm in southern Singapore is also expected by the end of this year, with a projected production capacity of up to 3,000 tonnes of fish annually by next year. Together, the farms will produce about 6 per cent of the fresh fish consumed here yearly, creating another stable supply of food for the Republic, said Mr Lim.

Singaporeans consume about 72,000 tonnes of fresh fish a year, with most coming from farms in Malaysia, Indonesia and Thailand, said the AVA. The special sea bass fry were produced through a 'painstaking process of selective breeding', said Mr Lim. Generations of the fish were bred and selected for desirable qualities, including size, growth and survival rates - a process which took three years, he explained.

This is the first time that fish from the four-year-old research centre has been produced and sold on a commercial scale. Previous projects which have yet to achieve large-scale production include a 2004 pilot effort involving golden pomfret, which are reared here in deep-net cages, allowing for more fish to be stocked than traditional shallow coastal cages. The new sea bass have proven to be a hit with restaurants here, and plans are under way to boost production of MAC's super fry. And with the success of the sea bass project, researchers at MAC are turning their attention to other popular fish species, including red snapper and cobia. Looking at the wriggling sea bass, some weighing up to 3kg, Mr Lim said: 'It's a proud moment.'

taniat@sph.com.sg

Learn more about the marine aquaculture centre at St John's Island from this article published in 2003:

Fish the high-tech way

The Straits Times Photograph by Chew Seng Kim, Story by Chang Ai Lien

The AVA's Marine Aquaculture Centre aims to develop the technology that will allow Singapore to produce 40 per cent of its food fish needs in eight years. MORE of the fish you eat could be grown here over the next few years. Researchers at a $33-million research and development facility on St John's Island are perfecting the techniques of large-scale fish breeding and rearing. They hope their work will result in production of almost half the fish people eat here. Only 5,000 tonnes of fish and seafood, or 5 per cent of that eaten here a year, is produced locally now.
But the Agri-Food and Veterinary Authority's (AVA) Marine Aquaculture Centre, which was opened officially yesterday, 11 aims to increase the annual figure to 40,000 tonnes in eight years. The centre will be working with commercial partners to hit the target, said AVA's chief executive officer Ngiam Tong Tau.

112 Large bags of micro-algae are grown 111 to feed micro-organisms such as brine shrimp which are used to feed the fry before they are weaned onto dry food. The fish being produced by the centre include Asian seabass, golden trevally, snapper and pompano. The AVA's involvement in aquaculture dates back to the 1970s, when, as the Primary Production Department, it worked with cf,mti kelong cf,mtr operators 15 to farm high-value species which they caught. It also pioneered the development of shallow coastal floating net cages ? where the fish live in nets placed in the sea. There are 86 such farms, which make up 4 per cent of the 100,000 tonnes of fish eaten here every year; the other 1 per cent comes from land-based farms.

With deep net-cage farms, which the centre is now testing 17 off St John's Island, more than three times the amount of fish can be produced over the same surface area as shallow cages.

Giant Dam Threatens Environment

2008-08-04T23:23:00.001+08:00

The three Gorges Dam which spans the Chang River in central China, is the biggest in the world. Built for $25 billion, it is 2.2 kilometers (1.45 miles) wide and 188 meters (616 feet) high-higher than a 60-story skyscraper.

Even before its construction began in 1994, the dam was controversial; Chinese and foreign scientists warned about its impact on the local environment. But government officials kept a tight seal on their own opinions until this fall, when some of them spoke about an impending "catastrophe."

The most pressing concern, say the officials, is landslide control. The water in the 600-kilometer-(370-mile-) long reservoir behind the dam is undermining the reservoir's banks. At more than 90 locations, land has slumped into the reservoir, in some places churning up huge waves that have crashed like tsunamis into nearby shores. In July 2007, a mountain caved into one of the Chang's tributaries, pulling 13 farmers to their deaths and drowning 11 fishermen. Future landslides could force hundreds of thousands of people to move.

Source: Current Science Asia Edition

After reading the above report, reflect on the other ways whereby rivers are managed. What are the pros and cons of of river management? Are soft engineering better than hard engineering?